上海新航道托福小編為托?？忌鷤儨?zhǔn)備了托福閱讀TPO28原文翻譯+答案解析,希望各位考生們在TPO真題里能夠得到鍛煉，祝廣大托?？忌軌蛉〉美硐氤煽儭?

  Groundwater

  Most of the world’s potable water-freshwater suitable for drinking is accounted for bygroundwater, which is stored in the pores andfractures in rocks. There is more than 50 times asmuch freshwater stored underground than in all the freshwater rivers and lakes at the surface.Nearly 50 percent of all groundwater is stored in the upper 1,000 meters of Earth. At greaterdepths within Earth, the pressure of the overlying rock causes pores and cracks to close,reducing the space that pore water can occupy, and almost complete closure occurs at a depthof about 10 kilometers. The greatest water storage, therefore, lies near the surface.

  世界上絕大部分飲用水----可以飲用的淡水----都是地下水，它們儲藏在巖石孔隙和裂縫中。儲藏于地下的淡水是地表淡水河流和湖泊中總水量的50倍。大約50%的地下水存在于地下深1000m以內(nèi)的地層中。隨深度增加，上覆巖層壓力使巖石孔隙和裂縫閉合，減少了水的儲存空間，而超過10公里深的地下孔隙幾乎全部閉合。因此絕大部分水儲存于接近地表的地層中。

  Aquifers, Porosity and Permeability

  水層，孔隙度和滲透率

  【2】Groundwater is stored in a variety of rock types. A groundwater reservoir from whichwater can be extracted is called an aquifer. We can effectively think of an aquifer as a depositof water. Extraction of water depends on two properties of the aquifer: porosity andpermeability. Between sediment grains are spaces that can be filled with water. This porespace is known as porosity and is expressed as a percentage of the total rock volume. Porosityis important for water—storage capacity, but for water to flow through rocks, the pore spacesmust be connected. The ability of water, or other fluids, to flow through the interconnected porespaces in rocks is termed permeability. In the intergranular spaces of rocks, however, fluidmust flow around and between grains in a tortuous path; this winding path causes aresistance to flow. The rate at which the flowing water overcomes this resistance is relatedto the permeability of rock.

  地層水儲存在多種巖石中?？梢匀〕龅牡叵滤木奂瘜咏凶鏊畬?。我們可以認為水層即水的聚集地層。從地層中取水取決于水層的兩個因素：孔隙度和滲透率。沉積顆粒之間的空間可以儲存水，這種孔隙空間由孔隙度表征?？紫抖仁菐r石孔隙體積與總體積的百分比?？紫抖葘Φ貙觾λ芰τ葹橹匾?，但欲使水從巖石中流出，孔隙之間必須相互連通。水或其它流體從相互連通的孔隙中流動的能力即為滲透率。在粒間孔發(fā)育的巖石中，流體必須在顆粒周圍的曲折通道中流動;這種曲折通道會對流動產(chǎn)生阻力。水克服阻力流動的速率與巖石滲透率相關(guān)。

  【3】Sediment sorting and compaction influence permeability and porosity. The more poorlysorted or the more tightly compacted a sediment is, the lower its porosity and permeability.Sedimentary rocks—the most common rock type near the surface—are also the most commonreservoirs for water because they contain the most space that can be filled with water.Sandstones generally make good aquifers, while finer-grained mudstones are typicallyimpermeable. Impermeable rocks are referred to as aquicludes. Igneous and metamorphicrocks are more compact, commonly crystalline, and rarely contain spaces between grains.However, even igneous and metamorphic rocks may act as groundwater reservoirs if extensivefracturing occurs in such rocks and if the fracture system is interconnected.

  沉積物的分選性和壓實程度影響其滲透率和孔隙度。巖石分選越差或壓實越緊則其孔隙度和滲透率越低。沉積巖----地表最常見的巖石----也是最常見的水儲集層，因為它們常帶有最多的可以儲水的孔隙空間。砂巖一般是最好的儲水層，但小顆粒的泥巖則通常不可滲透。不滲透巖層都稱為隔水層?；鸪蓭r和變質(zhì)巖壓實更緊，通常有結(jié)晶，并幾乎沒有粒間孔隙。但是即便是火成巖和變質(zhì)巖也可因裂縫大量發(fā)育并相互連接而成為儲水層。

  The Water Table

  地下水位

  【4】The water table is the underground boundary below which all the cracks and pores arefilled with water. In some cases, the water table reaches Earth’s surface, where it is expressedas rivers, lakes and marshes. Typically, though, the water table may be tens or hundreds ofmeters below the surface. The water table is not flat but usually follows the contours of thetopography. Above the water table is the vadose zone, through which rainwater percolates.Water in the vadose zone drains down to the water table, leaving behind a thin coating of wateron mineral grains. The vadose zone supplies plant roots near the surface with water.

  地下水位指地層巖石裂縫和孔隙充滿水的邊界。某些情況下，地下水位可能到達地表，在那里它以河流、湖泊或沼澤地的形式存在。但通常情況下地下水位位于地面數(shù)十或數(shù)百米以下。地下水位不是水平的，而是通常沿著地勢起伏。地下水位以上稱為包氣帶，在這里降水得以過濾。包氣帶中的水會沉降到地下水位，只在礦物顆粒表面留下一層水膜。包氣帶為地表附近植物根部提供水分。

  【5】Because the surface of the water table is not flat but instead rises and falls withtopography, groundwater is affected by gravity in the same fashion as surface water.Groundwater flows downhill to topographic lows. If the water table intersects the land surface,groundwater will flow out onto the surface at springs, weather to be collected there or tosubsequently flow farther along a drainage. Groundwater commonly collects in streamdrainages but may remain entirely beneath the surface of dry stream-beds in arid regions. Inparticularly wet years, short stretches of an otherwise dry stream-bed may have flowing waterbecause the water table rises to intersect the land surface.

  因為地下水位表面并非水平，而是沿著地勢起伏，地下水和地表水受到重力影響的模式相同。地下水沿著下傾地層流向地勢低洼處。如果地下水位與地表相交，地下水將以噴泉的形式流出地面，要么就地聚集，要么沿排水通道流向更遠的地方。地下水通常在小溪中聚集，但在干旱地區(qū)也可能全部停留在干涸河床下。在特定濕潤的年月里，一段干涸的河床下游可能有水流動，因為地下水位抬升到了那里的地表以上。

  [Glossary]

  Sediment: materials (such as sand or small rocks) that are deposited by water, wind, or glacialice.

  Topography: the shape of a surface such as Earth’s, including the rise and fall of such featuresas mountains and valleys.

  托福閱讀試題

  1.In paragraph 1, why does the author mention"the pressure of the overlying rock"?

  A.To show how water can be forced deep underEarth's surface.

  B.To show why groundwater is more plentiful than surface freshwater.

  C.To correct a commonly made error about the location of groundwater.

  D.To explain why most groundwater lies near Earth's surface.

  1.在高亮部分的描寫之后，本段的最后一句出現(xiàn)了，therefore。這里也是在說the pressure of the overlying rock導(dǎo)致的結(jié)果，也就是文章提到它的目的。其結(jié)果是，大部分的水儲都在比較表面的地方。所以其目的就是要解釋為什么水都在表面的地方。

  2.According to paragraph 1, groundwater differs from the water in riversand lakes interms of its

  A.portability.

  B.usefulness.

  C.abundance.

  D.cost.

  2.對應(yīng)原文第二句話，也就是將地下水和江河湖泊水進行比較的那句話。原句說more than 50 times。就證明是地下水的水量大。這里A是飲用性，原文并沒有說江水不能喝。B是有用，同理。D是代價。這個就更沒提到了。所以答案為C豐富。

  3.The word "extracted" in the passage(paragraph 2)is closest in meaning to

  A.used.

  B.poured.

  C.removed.

  D.kept out.

  3.extract本身是汲取，取出的意思。從原文后面一句話可以推測，因為后面說儲水土層可以看作是對一筆水存款，所以前面應(yīng)該是說可以取出。另外這個詞的詞綴ex-本身就有出的意思。那么A是使用，B是潑出，C是移動，D是隔離在外。

  4.The word "termed" in the passage(paragraph 2)is closest in meaning to

  A.considered.

  B.called.

  C.limited to.

  D.caused by.

  4.term作名詞是術(shù)語，這個很常用。而這里用了其動詞否定形式，那么應(yīng)該是…被術(shù)語為，也就是被命名為。那么A是認為，B是叫做，C是限制于，D是由于。所以應(yīng)該選B。

  5.According to paragraph 2, what does porosity determine?

  A.The rate at which the aquifer's water overcomes resistance to flow.

  B.The amount of water that the aquifer can hold.

  C.The likelihood that fractures and joints will occur in the aquifer.

  D.The depth underground at which the aquifer lies.

  5.A決定于permeability of rack，對應(yīng)本段最后一句。B正確，對應(yīng)本段第七句(porosity is important for water-storage capacity)，這句話只要根據(jù)porosity定位就很好找。C和porosity沒有直接關(guān)系。D原文就沒提到。

  6.According to paragraph 2, what is the relationship between permeability andporosity?

  A.The more pores a rock has, the higher its porosity but the lower its permeability.

  B.Rocks with many internal spaces that are not connected with each other will have highporosity but low permeability.

  C.If water flows through a rock easily, it has high permeability but low porosity.

  D.Rocks that have high permeability have high porosity and vice versa.

  6.對應(yīng)本段第一句和第二句，即sorting和compaction會共同影響permeability，結(jié)合上一段的最后一句理解，多孔性分為兩種情況，一種是孔多但是互相不聯(lián)通，這時permeability不高;另一種是孔多并且互相聯(lián)通，那么porosity高的同時permeability也會高。因此選擇B。其他幾個選項的敘述都不完整。這兩者的關(guān)系并不是簡單的正比例。

  7.The word "compacted" in the passage(paragraphy 3)is closest in meaning to

  A.hard.

  B.compressed.

  C.heavy.

  D.deeply buried.

  7.compact是壓縮，緊密的意思。通過后面的and的并列內(nèi)容可以推出其詞義，因為and后面說rarely contain space，那就是說中間的空間很小。所以選擇B壓縮的。A是堅硬，C是重的，D是深埋的。

  8.According to paragraph 3, when can igneous rock serve as an aquifer?

  A.When it has many connected fractures.

  B.When it lies next to metamorphic rock.

  C.When it lies relatively near the surface.

  D.When it is crystalline.

  8.對應(yīng)本段文章最后一句"even igneous rocks may act as groundwater…"后半句給出的就是答案，那么它說的是要有fractures并且要interconnected。所以選A。

  9.The word "coating" in the passage(paragraph 4)is closest in meaning to

  A.stream.

  B.barrier.

  C.amount.

  D.layer.

  9.Coating本來是外衣，和涂層的意思。那么A是溪流，B是障礙物，C是數(shù)量，D是層。所以D符合。

  10.Paragraph 4 implies which of the following about the rootsof plants?

  A.They prevent water from reaching the vadose zone.

  B.They mark the boundary between the vadose zone and the water table

  C.They do not typically get their water from the water table.

  D.They help keep the water table from dropping farther.

  10.根據(jù)plant roots定位到本段最后一句。說vadose zone給植物根部提供了水。選項A，B，D都沒提到。而只有C沒有錯誤，因為plant roots是從vadose zone汲取的水份，而不是water table。所以選C。

  11.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in thehighlighted sentence in the passage paragraph 5 ? Incorrect choices change themeaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

  A.Groundwater only flows out of the ground if the water table intersects the land surface.

  B.If the land surface and the water table intersect, groundwater can flow underground.

  C.Groundwater may be drained if springs occur where the water table intersects the landsurface.

  D.Where the water table meets the land surface, groundwater flows out through surfacesprings.

  11.A選項缺少了spring這個條件;B，C選項不正確。D包含了原文所有的主干部分，正確。

  12.Paragraph 5 implies which of the following about the level of the water

  A.It may rise or fall from year to year, depending on annual rainfall.

  B.It does not vary in arid regions.

  C.It rarely intersects the land surface of most regions.

  D.It is unrelated to the rate at which groundwater flows.

  12.根據(jù)這段最后兩句對于wet year的描寫可以得出根據(jù)降雨量不同，地下水位是有變化的。所以A正確。B不正確，原文明顯寫到在arid regions降雨量多時干燥的溪床會有水。C也不對，整段都有大篇幅在寫和land surface的intersects。D原文沒提到。

  13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could beadded to the passage.Where would the sentence best fit? This is a consequence of theslow rate of movement of the groundwater, which often prevents the water tablefrom attaining a flat (horizontal) level.

  The water table is the underground boundary below which all the cracksand pores are filledwith water. In some cases, the water table reaches Earth's surface, where it is expressed asrivers, lakes and marshes. ■【A】Typically,though,the water table may be tens or hundreds ofmeters below the surface. ■【B】The water table is not flat but usually follows the contours ofthe topography. ■【C】Above the water table is the vadose zone, through which rainwaterpercolates. ■【D】Water in the vadosezone drains down to the water table, leaving behind athin coating of water onmineral grains. The vadose zone supplies plant roots near the surfacewithwater.

  13.要插入的句子說this is a consequence，那么this一定指代什么，根據(jù)后半句可以知道指代的內(nèi)容應(yīng)該與地下水位不是平面有關(guān)。所以C的位置符合，因為前面一句說地下水位不是平面。

  14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage isprovided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices thatexpress the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong inthe summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or areminor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.

  Most of the world's potable water is stored as groundwater in the poresand fractures ofunderground rock, much of it at depths of less than 1,000 meters.

  A.Sedimentary rock may make poor aquifers because of tightly compacted sediment, whichreduces porosity and permeability.

  B.Porosity is a measure of the empty space within rock while permeability measures thedegree to which water can flow freely through rock.

  C.In arid regions, the water tables remain at a constant level far below the surface, preventingstream-beds from filling up even during wet years.

  D.Groundwater reservoirs are characterized by the porosity and permeability of the rock inwhich they lie, and these factors vary according to the type of rock.

  E.The vadose zone is typically dry because water does not stay in it, but instead percolatesdown to aquifers below or drains out through springs and streams.

  F.Although the water table usually follows the contours of the land surface, its level may varyfrom year to year and may intersect to the surface in places.

  14.A 錯誤，對應(yīng)文章第三段的第三句有關(guān)于sedimentary rock的描寫。根據(jù)原文，sedimentary rock是很好的aquifers，B正確，對應(yīng)第二段的前四句。C正確，對應(yīng)原文第二段。D錯誤，vadose zone中會留下thin coating所以還是會濕潤。對應(yīng)原文第四段。E錯誤，water table本非remain at a constant level，根據(jù)倒數(shù)第二句，地下水位有時會和地表交叉的。F正確，對應(yīng)原文最后一段。

  Early Saharan Pastoralists

  The Sahara is a highly diverse, albeit dry, region that has undergone major climatic changes since 10,000 B.C. As recently as 6,000 B.C. the southern frontier of the desert was far to the north of where it is now, while semiarid grassland and shallow freshwater lakes covered much of what are now arid plains. This was a landscape where antelope of all kinds abounded—along with Bos primigenius, a kind of oxen that has become extinct. The areas that are now desert were, like all arid regions, very susceptible to cycles of higher and lower levels of rainfall, resulting in major, sudden changes in distributions of plants and animals. The people who hunted the sparse desert animals responded to drought by managing the wild resources they hunted and gathered, especially wild oxen, which had to have regular water supplies to survive.

  盡管干旱，撒哈拉的物種極其多樣，并自公元前10,000年前開始已經(jīng)歷了數(shù)次重大氣候變遷。直到公元前6,000年前，沙漠的南部邊界比現(xiàn)在的位置要靠北很多，那時半干旱的草原和淺淡水湖泊覆蓋了現(xiàn)在干旱的平原。這里曾經(jīng)是各種羚羊和一種已滅絕的野牛出沒的地方。現(xiàn)在的沙漠地區(qū)，像所有干旱地區(qū)一樣，對降雨量的變化周期極為敏感，因而其動植物的分布變化巨大且迅速。依靠捕食稀少的沙漠動物的居民對待干旱的方式是管理他們捕捉和收集到的野生資源，尤其是需要可靠水源維持生命的野牛。

  Even before the drought, the Sahara was never well watered. Both humans and animals were constantly on the move, in search of food and reliable water supplies. Under these circumstances, archaeologist Andrew Smith believes, the small herds of Bos primigenius in the desert became smaller, more closely knit breeding units as the drought took hold. The beasts were more disciplined, so that it was easier for hunters to predict their habits, and capture animals at will. At the same time, both cattle and humans were more confined in their movements, staying much closer to permanent water supplies for long periods of time. As a result, cattle and humans came into close association.

  甚至在干旱之前，撒哈拉地區(qū)也從未有充足的水分。人類和野生動物都不停的遷徙，以尋找食物和可靠的水源。在這些情況下，考古學(xué)家Andrew Smith 認為隨著干旱的持續(xù)，沙漠中野牛群會變成更小，組織更緊密的族群。獸群變得更加自律，因此獵人更容易預(yù)測他們的習(xí)性并隨意抓捕。同時，駱駝和人類的行動范圍進一步靠近，在固定水源附近長期更親近的共處。結(jié)果駱駝和人類形成了緊密的聯(lián)合。

  Smith believes that the hunters were well aware of the more disciplined ways in which their prey behaved. Instead of following the cattle on their annual migrations, the hunters began to prevent the herd from moving from one spot to another. At first, they controlled the movement of the herd while ensuring continuance of their meat diet. But soon they also gained genetic control of the animals, which led to rapid physical changes in the herd. South African farmers who maintain herds of wild eland (large African antelopes with short, twisted horns) report that the offspring soon diminish in size, unless wild bulls are introduced constantly from outside. The same effects of inbreeding may have occurred in controlled cattle populations, with some additional, and perhaps unrecognized, advantages. The newly domesticated animals behaved better, were easier to control, and may have enjoyed a higher birth rate, which in turn yielded greater milk supplies. We know from rock paintings deep in the Sahara that the herders were soon selecting breeding animals to produce offspring with different horn shapes and hide colors.

  Smith相信獵人對獵物更加自律的行為了然于胸。獵人們不再跟隨駱駝進行每年一度的遷徙而是開始阻止獸群的遷移。起初他們控制獸群的遷移以獲得持續(xù)的肉食來源。但很快他們能夠在遺傳上控制動物，使得獸群的體征迅速變化。南非牧養(yǎng)大羚羊(一種體型較大的非洲羚羊，它們的角短且扭曲)的農(nóng)民說如果不持續(xù)從野外引進公羚羊則其后代體型迅速變小。近親繁殖的影響同樣發(fā)生在控制擁有某些額外的可能并未認清的優(yōu)勢的駱駝數(shù)量上。最新馴化的動物更易控制，出生率也更高，而反過來也會提供更多奶源。我們從撒哈拉腹地的巖石繪畫可知牧民很快就選擇一些動物進行繁殖以產(chǎn)生角和顏色不同的后代。

  It is still unclear whether domesticated cattle were tamed independently in northern Africa or introduced to the continent from southwest Asia. Whatever the source of the original tamed herds might have been, it seems entirely likely that much the same process of juxtaposition (living side by side) and control occurred in both southwest Asia and northern Africa, and even in Europe, among peoples who had an intimate knowledge of the behavior of wild cattle. The experiments with domestication probably occurred in many places, as people living in ever-drier environments cast around for more predictable food supplies.

  我們?nèi)詿o法知道駱駝是在北非獨立馴化的還是從東南亞引入的。不管馴化的獸群起源何處，東南亞和北非，甚至是歐洲的那些對野生駱駝的行為了然于胸的人們都可能經(jīng)過了同樣的和他們要馴化的動物毗鄰而居并逐漸控制它們的過程。隨著人們居住環(huán)境不斷干燥和食物供給的可預(yù)測性更強，馴化的嘗試很可能發(fā)生在很多地方。

  The cattle herders had only a few possessions: unsophisticated pots and polished adzes. They also hunted with bow and arrow. The Saharan people left a remarkable record of their lives painted on the walls of caves deep in the desert. Their artistic endeavors have been preserved in paintings of wild animals, cattle, goats, humans, and scenes of daily life that extend back perhaps to 5,000 B.C.. The widespread distribution of pastoral sites of this period suggests that the Saharans ranged their herds over widely separated summer and winter grazing grounds.

  駱駝牧養(yǎng)人的財產(chǎn)很少：一些并不精致的罐子和磨光的斧子。他們也利用弓箭捕獵。撒哈拉人在撒哈拉腹地洞穴的墻壁上留下了很重要的關(guān)于他們生活的記錄。他們的藝術(shù)創(chuàng)作保存了大量關(guān)于野生動物、駱駝、山羊、人類及其日常生活的各種場景的繪畫。這些場景可能追溯到公元前5,000年前。這一時期田園畫古跡的廣泛分布表明撒哈拉人曾在廣泛且獨立的牧場上放牧。

  About 3,500 B.C., climatic conditions again deteriorated. The Sahara slowly became drier and lakes vanished. On the other hand, rainfall increased in the interior of western Africa, and the northern limit of the tsetse fly, an insect fatal to cattle, moved south. So the herders shifted south, following the major river systems into savanna regions. By this time, the Saharan people were probably using domestic crops, experimenting with such summer rainfall crops as sorghum and millet as they move out of areas where they could grow wheat, barley, and other Mediterranean crops.

  大約公元前3,500年前，氣候條件又一次惡化。撒哈拉沙漠漸漸地更加干旱，湖泊相繼干涸。另外西非內(nèi)陸降雨增加，并且舌蠅，一種對駱駝致命的昆蟲，的種群的北部邊界向南移動。所以駱駝牧民也追隨大平原區(qū)域的主要河流系統(tǒng)向南遷徙。此時，隨著撒哈拉人從原本可以種植小麥、大麥和其它一些地中海農(nóng)作物的區(qū)域中遷出，他們可能依靠當(dāng)?shù)氐霓r(nóng)作物，例如像高粱和小米一類的依靠夏季降雨的作物。

  [Glossary]

  adzes: cutting tools with blades set at right angles to the handle

  托福閱讀試題

  1.According to paragraph 1, what was true ofthe Sahara region around 6,000 B.C.?

  A.Much less of it was desert than is now the case.

  B.Most areas that are now grassland were covered byshallow lakes.

  C.It had just undergone a major climatic change.

  D.Wild oxen and antelopes lived in separate parts of the region.

  1.原文寫到"在公元前六千年左右，在沙漠的南邊界，遠離北邊的地方現(xiàn)在是干旱的平原，當(dāng)時這里是各種羚羊和原始牛都很豐富的山水畫般的地方"那么也就是說那時候那個地方還不是沙漠。所以A，當(dāng)時沙漠要比現(xiàn)在少，正確。B現(xiàn)在沒grassland。C并沒說這個改變是在公元前6000年發(fā)生的。D通過"along with"可以知道這兩種動物是生活在一起的。

  2.The word "albeit" in the passage(paragraph 1)is closest in meaning to

  A.usually.

  B.almost.

  C.though.

  D.rather.

  2.通過原文albeit前后兩個詞可以推出轉(zhuǎn)折意義，前面是多樣性的，后面是干燥的，兩者有褒貶對比，所以選C

  3.According to paragraph 1, which of the following is true of all arid regions?

  A.They include at least some freshwater lakes.

  B.They have similar distributions of plants and animals.

  C.They are greatly affected by changes in the amount of rain they receive.

  D.They have frequent droughts that make it difficult to manage the wild resources.

  3.根據(jù)all arid region定位(紅色標(biāo)出句)選項A錯誤，原文沒說。B，原文雖然提到了distribution ofplants，但是并沒說所有的干燥地區(qū)這一點都是相似的。C正確，原文說very susceptible to higher andlower levels of rainfall。D錯誤，最后一句說人們因此而開始manage resources。

  4.Paragraph 2 supports which of the following ideas about wild oxen in the Sahararegion after the drought took hold?

  A.They traveled in smaller herds.

  B.They were harder for hunters to capture.

  C.They tended to be significantly smaller in size.

  D.They moved along less predictable routes.

  4.對應(yīng)文章地三句，第四句。根據(jù)原文說這種牛群體更小了，繁殖的單位更小，別馴化了，跟容易被預(yù)測。所以B，D錯誤，C原文沒提到，只說其群體變小。也就是A。

  5.According to paragraph 2, what was it that brought cattle and humans into closeassociation?

  A.The development of smaller breeding units within hers.

  B.Cattle and humans staying close to permanent water supplies for long period of time.

  C.The development of greater discipline among cattle.

  D.Cattle and humans constangly on the move searching for food and reliable water supplies.

  5.根據(jù)close association定位到最后一句，但這句說as a result，那么原因就在前面一句。前一句說cattlehuman都staying much closer to permanent water supplies。所以完美的對應(yīng)了B。

  6.Why does the author mention the "rock paintings deep in the Sahara"?

  A.To help explain why the hunters wanted to control the herds.

  B.To provide support for the idea that the herders soon gained genetic control of the cattle

  C.To show that the herders had artistic as well as practical abilities

  D.To argue that the herders soon began to value their cattle for more than food.

  6.這個例子之前一直在說herders gained genetic control和其影響。然后給出這個例子，后面的內(nèi)容也在說放牧人是怎樣進行基因控制的。所以應(yīng)該選B。

  7.According to paragraph 3, all of the following statements were true of newlydomesticated animals EXCEPT

  A.They were controlled more easily by the farmers.

  B.They produced a larger number of offspring.

  C.They produce more milk.

  D.They were larger in size.

  7.根據(jù)domesticated animals 定位到這一段后半部分，已用紅色字標(biāo)出，加粗字體為domesticatedanimals的描述。D沒提到。所以選D。

  8.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in thehighlighted sentence in the passage paragraph 4 ? Incorrect choices change themeaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

  A.Regardless of where the first tamed herds came from, people tried to control them by livingin juxtaposition with them.

  B.Regardless of where the first tamed herds came from, they resulted from the same process ofjuxtaposition and control by people who understood the behavior of wild cattle.

  C.People who had an intimate knowledge of the behavior of wild cattle moved closer togetherto cooperate in taming the herd, regardless of where they found them.

  D.The process of taming herds was certainly the same in southwest Asia, northern Africa, andEurope because people knew a lot about the behavior of wild cattle, regardless of where theylived.

  8.這里的主干內(nèi)容是，不管馴化動物從哪起源的，最后在不同的地區(qū)得到的都是同樣的方法：juxtaposition，control。根據(jù)以上信息對選項進行排除。

  A：前半句沒問題。后半句和原文關(guān)系不符

  B：正確，包括了所有主干部分。

  C：完全和原文說的不是一回事兒啊。

  D：原文并沒有因果關(guān)系。

  9.According to paragraph 5, each of the following was true about the early Saharanpeople EXCEPT

  A.They had few possessions apart from cattle.

  B.After about 5,000 B.C., they lived primarily in caves that were located deep in the desert.

  C.Between the summer and winter seasons, they moved their herds over long distances.

  D.They painted animals and scenes of daily life on the walls of caves.

  9.A對應(yīng)第一句，除了牛，他們還有住所和斧頭。C對應(yīng)最后一句。D對應(yīng)第三句。B，原文雖然說到他們在沙漠深處的洞穴里畫畫了，但是沒說他們住那。所以不對，選B。

  10.The word "endeavors" in the passage is closest in meaning to

  A.methods.

  B.styles.

  C.scenes.

  D.efforts.

  10.Endeavor是努力，盡力的意思。A是方法;B風(fēng)格;C景象;D努力。所以D最貼切。從文章可以推測。之前在描述他們的生活場景，財產(chǎn)，打獵。然后說他們畫畫。這里問的是記錄了什么，那么應(yīng)該是他們之前做出的努力。別的單詞帶入后都解釋不通。

  11.The word "deteriorated" in the passage is closest in meaning to

  A.became unstable.

  B.caused hardship.

  C.changed completely.

  D.got worse.

  11.通過這個詞后面的一句話對撒哈拉的描寫可以看出都是負面發(fā)展。更干燥，湖也消失了。A是不穩(wěn)定，B是困苦，C是完全改變。

  12.According to paragraph 6, what allowed the herders to shift south into thesavanna regions after about 3,500 B.C.?

  A.They could easily grow Mediterranean crops in those regions.

  B.They could more easily domesticated sorghum and millet in those regions.

  C.The tsetse fly was no longer a problem in those regions.

  D.The river systems in those regions provided reliable sources of water in the summer.

  12.根據(jù)move south和savanna region定位到原文字體標(biāo)注處，這句話開頭出現(xiàn)So，那證明往前一句就是原因。前一句說西部降水變多了，并且northern limit of the tsetse fly moved south，所以牛群也movesouth。對應(yīng)了C選項。D可能是個迷惑選項，但是按原文的意思，river只是牛遷徙的路徑"following"，但并不是原因。

  13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could beadded to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit? This knowledge enabled thehunters to adopt a different approach to hunting.

  Smith believes that the hunters were well aware of the more disciplined ways in which theirprey behaved. ■【A】Instead of following the cattle on their annual migrations, the huntersbegan to prevent the herd from moving from one spot to another. ■【B】At first, theycontrolled the movement of the herd whileensuring continuance of their meat diet. ■【C】But soon they also gained genetic control of the animals, which led to rapid physicalchanges in the herd. ■【D】South African farmers who maintain herds of wild eland (largeAfrican antelopes withshort, twisted horns) report that the offspring soon diminish in size,unless wild bulls are introduced constantly from outside. The same effects of inbreeding mayhave occurred in controlled cattle populations, with some additional, and perhapsunrecognized, advantages. The newly domesticated animals behaved better, were easier tocontrol, and may have enjoyed a higher birth rate, which in turn yielded greater milk supplies.We know from rock paintings deepin the Sahara that the herders were soon selecting breedinganimals to produce offspring with different horn shapes and hide colors.

  13.需要插入的句子說"這個知識使得獵人改變了打獵的方法"。那么前面應(yīng)該說獵人得到了什么知識，后面應(yīng)該說這個方法怎么改變了。A選項完美符合了這個邏輯和內(nèi)容。

  14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage isprovided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices thatexpress the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong inthe summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or areminor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.

  As recently as 6,000 B.C., much ofthe Sahara region was semiarid grassland where humanshunted wild oxen andantelope.

  A.There was enough freshwater for Saharan peoples to move freely throughout the regionwithout having to manage the resources they hunted and gathered.

  B.Once Saharans controlled the breeding of their cattle, the characteristics of the cattlechanged rapidly, increasing their reproductive rate and milk production.

  C.Although the Saharan peoples were remarkably sophisticated artists, they had only a fewsimple possessions, like adzes and the bows and arrows they used for hunting.

  D.When the drying climate forced cattle and humans close to each other in areas with watersupplies, humans gained control over the cattle and eventually domesticated them.

  E.Herders soon began selecting breeding animals to produce offspring with different hornshapes and hide colors, although the advantage of controlled inbreeding were not apparentto them at first.

  F.As the drought worsened around 3,500 B.C. and conditions for herders became morefavorable to the south, the Saharan people moved into savanna regions, where they grewdifferent crops.

  14.A錯誤，原文說因為干旱，所以農(nóng)民開始manage the resources。對應(yīng)原文第一段最后一句。B錯誤，原文說因為干旱，所以農(nóng)民開始manage the resources。對應(yīng)原文第一段最后一句。C正確。對應(yīng)原文第三段。D前半句正確，但后半句不對，在他們選中種畜之后，已經(jīng)明確的知道了好處。E雖然這句內(nèi)容文章都有提到，但是并沒有although這樣的邏輯變化。所以不選。F正確。對應(yīng)文章最后一段。

  Buck Rubs and Buck Scrapes

  A conspicuous sign indicating the presence of white-tailed deer in a woodlot is a buck rub. A male deer makes a buck rub by striping the bark (outer layer) of a small tree with its antlers. When completed, the buck rub is an obvious visual signal to us and presumable to other deer in the area. A rub is usually located at the shoulder height of a deer (one meter or less above the ground) on a smooth-barked, small-diameter (16-25 millimeters) tree. The smooth bark of small red maples makes this species ideal for buck rubs in the forests of the mid-eastern United States.

  一個表示白尾鹿在小樹林中存在的顯著標(biāo)志是雄鹿擦痕。雄鹿利用鹿角剝除小樹的樹皮以制造雄鹿擦痕。完工后，雄鹿擦痕對我們來說是一道明顯的標(biāo)志，對當(dāng)?shù)氐钠渌箒碚f也可能如此。擦痕常與鹿肩齊高(距地面一米或不到一米)，并位于樹皮光滑、樹徑較細(16-25cm)的樹上。美國中東部森林中的樹皮光滑的紅色小楓樹是雄鹿擦痕的理想物種。

  Adult male deer usually produce rubs in late summer or early autumn when the outer velvet layer is being shed from their antlers. Rubs are created about one to two months before the breeding season (the rut). Hence for a long time biologists believed that male deer used buck rubs not only to clean and polish antlers but also to provide practice for the ensuing male-to-male combat during the rut. However, biologists also noted deer sniff and lick an unfamiliar rub, which suggests that this visual mark on a small tree plays an important communication purpose in the social life of deer.

  成年雄鹿通常在夏末或秋初當(dāng)它們的鹿茸上的外皮脫落時制造擦痕。雄鹿差不多在它們交配期(發(fā)情期)的前一到兩個月制造擦痕。因此長期以來，生物學(xué)家們認為雄鹿擦痕不僅可以清除并磨光鹿茸，還可以借此練習(xí)發(fā)情期時雄鹿之間的角斗。然而，生物學(xué)家們也認識到鹿會嗅和舔舐陌生的擦痕，這表明這種小樹上的視覺記號在鹿群社會生活中起到重要的交流目的。

  Buck rubs also have a scent produced by glands in the foreheads of deer that is transferred to the tree when the rub is made. These odors make buck rubs an important means of olfactory communication between deer. The importance of olfactory communication (using odors to communicate) in the way of life of deer was documented by a study of captive adult male deer a few decades ago, which noted that males rubbed their foreheads on branches and twigs, especially as autumn approached. A decade later another study reported that adult male white-tailed deer exhibited forehead rubbing just before and during the rut. It was found that when a white-tailed buck makes a rub, it moves both antlers and forehead glands along the small tree in a vertical direction. This forehead rubbing behavior coincides with a high level of glandular activity in the modified scent glands found on the foreheads of male deer; the glandular activity causes the forehead pelage (hairy covering) of adult males to be distinctly darker than in females or younger males.

  雄鹿擦痕都有一種由雄鹿前額上的腺體分泌的氣味，它在制造擦痕時涂抹到樹上。這些氣味使得雄鹿擦痕成為鹿與鹿之間重要的嗅覺交流方式。嗅覺交流(利用氣味交流)在鹿群生活中的重要性可以通過幾十年前一項對圈禁的雄鹿的研究得以印證。研究發(fā)現(xiàn)，特別是當(dāng)秋天將近時，雄鹿就將其前額在樹枝上蹭來蹭去。十年后的另一項研究發(fā)現(xiàn)成年雄性白尾鹿在其發(fā)情期或發(fā)情期前會摩擦其前額。當(dāng)白尾鹿制造擦痕時，它將其鹿茸和前額腺體在小樹上垂直磨蹭。這種前額的磨蹭行為和雄鹿前額上散發(fā)氣味的腺體的異常活躍一致。該腺體活動導(dǎo)致成年雄鹿的前額皮毛比雌鹿或未成年鹿的暗很多。

  Forehead rubbing by male deer on buck rubs presumably sends a great deal of information to other members of the same species. First, the chemicals deposited on the rub provide information on the individual identity of an animal; no two mammals produce the same scent. For instance, as we all know, dogs recognize each other via smell. Second, because only male deer rub, the buck rub and its associated chemicals indicate the sex of the deer producing the rub. Third, older, more dominant bucks produce more buck rubs and probably deposit more glandular secretions on a given rub. Thus the presence of many well-marked rubs is indicative of older, higher-status males being in the general vicinity rather than simply being a crude measure of relative deer abundance in a given area. The information conveyed by the olfactory signals on a buck rub make it the social equivalent of some auditory signals in other deer species, such as trumpeting by bull elk.

  雄鹿前額在擦痕上的摩擦很可能向同類中的其它成員發(fā)出了大量信息。首先擦痕上殘留的化學(xué)物質(zhì)提供了一只動物的個體信息。沒有兩只氣味相同的哺乳動物。就如我們熟知的那樣，狗就是通過氣味區(qū)別彼此的。第二，因為只有雄鹿制造擦痕，所以擦痕及其攜帶的化學(xué)物質(zhì)表示了制造擦痕的鹿的性別信息。第三，年齡更大、更具統(tǒng)治地位的雄鹿制造的擦痕更多，而且其分泌在擦痕上的氣味分泌物很可能也更多。因此大量的標(biāo)記得很好的擦痕的出現(xiàn)表明年齡較大、地位較高的雄鹿就在附近，而不僅只是粗略的說明了該區(qū)域鹿群的相對豐度。雄鹿擦痕上的氣味記號所攜帶的信息使它成為與其它種類鹿群中的某些聲音信號，比如雄性麋鹿的叫聲，同等重要。

  Because both sexes of white-tailed respond to buck rubs by smelling and licking them, rubs may serve a very important additional function. Fresher buck rubs (less than two days old), in particular, are visited more frequently by adult females than older rubs. In view of this behavior it has been suggested that chemicals present in fresh buck rubs may help physiologically induce and synchronize fertility in females that visit these rubs. This would be an obvious advantage to wide-ranging deer, especially to a socially dominant buck when courting several adult females during the autumn rut. Another visual signal produced by while-tailed deer is termed a buck scrape. Scrapes consist of a clearing (about 0.5 meter in diameter) and shallow depression made by pushing aside the leaves covering the ground; after making the scrape, the deer typically urinates in the depression. Thus, like a buck rub, a scrape is both a visual and an olfactory signal. Buck scrapes are generally created after leaf-fall in autumn, which is just before or during the rut. Scrapes are usually placed in open or conspicuous places, such as along a deer trail. Most are made by older males, although females and younger males (2.5 years old or less) occasionally make scrapes

  因為雄性和雌性白尾鹿都會嗅和舔舐雄鹿擦痕，所以這些擦痕還有一個重要的功能。特別的，新鮮擦痕(兩天以內(nèi)制造的)要比更久遠的擦痕受到更多關(guān)注。這種行為表明新鮮擦痕上的化學(xué)物質(zhì)可能有助于從生理上誘導(dǎo)并讓關(guān)注這些擦痕的雌鹿同時受孕。這對分布廣泛的鹿群顯然是一個有利條件，尤其對秋天發(fā)情期中一只處于較高社會統(tǒng)治地位的同時向幾只成年雌鹿求愛的雄鹿而言。由白尾鹿制造的另一種視覺記號叫做雄鹿窩。雄鹿窩是一個通過將地面上的樹葉推開而產(chǎn)生的干凈而較淺的低坑(直徑約0.5m)。雄鹿窩制造完成后，鹿通常會在低坑里小便。因此，像雄鹿擦痕一樣，雄鹿窩既是視覺上的也是嗅覺上的記號。雄鹿窩通常在秋天樹葉落下后，雄鹿發(fā)情期或之前出現(xiàn)。雄鹿窩常位于開闊或顯眼的位置，比如沿著鹿的行動路線。絕大部分雄鹿窩由年齡更大的雄鹿制造，但有些雌鹿和年輕雄鹿(2.5年或更年輕)偶爾也制造雄鹿窩。

  托福閱讀試題

  1.The word "conspicuous" in thepassage(paragraph 1)is closest in meaning to

  A.noticeable.

  B.common.

  C.strange.

  D.particular.

  1.這里說一個XX的標(biāo)志可以說明白尾鹿的存在。再往后，第三句有一個同意的句子，說" the buck rub is an obviousvisual signal to us…" 由此可得出conspicuous是obvious的同義詞。因此選A. noticeable，引人注意的。B，C，D分別是常見的;奇怪的;特別的。

  2.According to paragraph 1, why are small red maple trees ideal for buckrubs?

  A.They have smooth bark.

  B.They are found in the mid-eastern United States.

  C.They grow very slowly.

  D.They tend to grow in open spaces.

  2.根據(jù)small red maple tree定位(紅色字標(biāo)出)，而這句話的主語其是"The smooth bark" 因此知道they have smooth bark才是成為理想對象的重要條件。

  3.The studies of forehead rubbing by deer described in paragraph 3 showed that

  A.forehead rubbing encourages the growth of antlers.

  B.mule deer and white-tailed deer behave differently during the rut.

  C.the rut can occur at different times of the year.

  D.deer convey important information through scent.

  3.根據(jù) forehead 定位到這段的第一句。這句說會留下氣味，后一句說了氣味的作用是communication。所以D符合。

  4.The word "exhibited" in the passage(paragraph 3)is closest in meaning to

  A.relied on.

  B.increased.

  C.displayed.

  D.preferred.

  4.Exhibited是展現(xiàn)，出現(xiàn)的意思。A是依靠;B是增加;C是展示;D是寧愿。 因此C符合。這句話的含義可以從前文中推斷。因為前面幾段也都提到了說雄性鹿是在發(fā)情期的時候會用角去摩擦樹皮。所以這里應(yīng)該是"出現(xiàn)"的意思。

  5.Why does the author mention that "dogs recognize each other via smell"?

  A.To point out the similarities between dogs and deer.

  B.To argue that animals communicate through scent rather than through vision.

  C.To support the claim that the scent of a buck rub serves to identify its maker to otherdeer.

  D.To suggest that buck rubs can be detected by other species.

  5.這句話是由for instance引出的。那么如果要找這個例子的目的，要到前面去找論點。這一段的總論點，就是第一句話，主要是"send information to other members";first后面是第一個分論點。所以答案應(yīng)該跟這兩句有關(guān)。因此選C氣味可以幫助identify。

  6.The word "crude" in the passage(paragraph 4)is closest in meaning to

  A.rough.

  B.useful.

  C.necessary.

  D.obvious.

  6.這里說是simply被怎樣量。如果是簡單的量一下的話，應(yīng)該是比較粗略的，crude是粗糙的。A粗糙的;B有用的;C必要的;D明顯的。所以應(yīng)該選A。

  7.What can be inferred from paragraph 4 about the trumpeting of bull elk?

  A.Trumpeting by higher-status bull elk signals their presence to other members of theirspecies.

  B.Bull elk need to combine trumpeting with olfactory signals to convey information abouttheir identity.

  C.Trumpeting alerts white-tailed deer to the presence of bull elk in their vicinity.

  D.Trumpeting provides a better measure of deer presence in a given area than buck rubs do.

  7.根據(jù)trumpeting of bull elk定位到這一段最后一句(紅色標(biāo)出)。這里trumpeting by bull elk是個例子，那么要想知道在描述什么，還要往前找。前面一句話說雄鹿摩擦嗅覺傳遞的信息在社交中與其他鹿的種族的聽覺信號起到了同樣的作用。但是這種作用又是什么呢?繼續(xù)往前找。可以看到說well-marked rub isindicative of older，higher-status male。信息完整之后很容易得到A的答案。

  8.According to paragraph 4, the buck rubs occurring in a given area revealall of thefollowing information about deer EXCEPT

  A.the individual identity of the deer.

  B.the gender of the deer.

  C.the likely social status of the deer.

  D.the number of deer in the vicinity.

  8.對應(yīng)部分已經(jīng)分別用紅色字體標(biāo)出。雖然原文有提到D中間的詞vicinity但是和原文不附的是，原文說的是general vicinity，而不是具體的number。這個題基本上跟隨著first，second，third就可以找答案，因為本段的主題就是在描述這個buck rub的作用。

  9.The word "induce" in the passage(paragraph 5)is closest in meaning to

  A.increase.

  B.extend.

  C.delay.

  D.stimulate.

  9.Induce本身是引導(dǎo)，引發(fā)。并且這里出現(xiàn)了and的并列形式，所以前后詞義應(yīng)該相近，后邊是使配合，使同步。前面如果用增加，延伸，延期都不合適。因此選擇D刺激。

  10.According to paragraph 5, which of the following is true about chemicals in buckrubs?

  A.They have to be at least two days old for females to be able to detect them.

  B.They are more effective in older buck rubs than in fresher ones.

  C.They may affect fertility in female deer.

  D.They can be more easily detected by young males than adult females.

  10.根據(jù)chemical定位(紅色標(biāo)出)，這句后面說物理上引導(dǎo)并使受精同步……。因此C符合。A原文第二句提到了，但原文說的是要less than 2 day和選項相反。B原文說的是fresh buck rubs更受歡迎。 D這段提到的rub being detected都是關(guān)于females。

  11.The word "termed" in the passage(paragraph 5)is closest in meaning to

  A.associated with.

  B.visible as.

  C.known as.

  D.provided by.

  11.這個詞前面給出了一個描述，后面是一個術(shù)語，名詞。那么可以由此推斷這句話是一個定義。因此應(yīng)該是被叫做，被定義為的意思。所以選C。

  12.According to the passage, in what way do buck scrapes differ from buckrubs?

  A.Buck scrapes are made by both male and female deer.

  B.Buck scrapes are purely visual signals.

  C.Buck scrapes are made closer to the breeding season than buck rubs.

  D.Buck scrapes can be smelled only by deer.

  12.對應(yīng)部分由紅色字體標(biāo)出。A正確，因為根據(jù)前文知道rub只是由male造成的，而scrapes是雌雄都可以的。B和原文不附，對應(yīng)這段中間的地方，說到了both visual and olfactory signal。C這個也沒有明顯區(qū)分，scrapes和buck rubs都是在秋天做的，before or during the rut。

  13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could beadded to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit? This process can take a fewhours to several days.

  A conspicuous sign indicating the presence of white-tailed deer in a woodlot is a buck rub. ■【A】A make deer makes a buck rub by striping the bark(outer layer) of a small tree with itsantlers. ■【B】When completed, the buck rubis an obvious visual signal to us andpresumable to other deer in the area. ■【C】Arub is usually located at the shoulder height of adeer (one meter or less above the ground) on a smooth-barked, small-diameter (16-25millimeters) tree.■【D】The smooth bark of small red maples makes this species ideal forbuck rubs in the forests of the mid-eastern United States.

  13.B

  14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage isprovided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices thatexpress the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong inthe summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or areminor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.

  Buck rubs and buck scrapes are two types of markings made by white-tailed deer.

  A.The observation that deer sniff and lick buck rubs first led scientists to connect buck rubswith combat between adult males during the breeding season.

  B.Buck rubs and buck scrapes are visual signals and smells that deer use to communicate avariety of information to other deer.

  C.The number of buck rubs and buck scrapes in a given area changes as the density of thepopulation of male deer in the area changes.

  D.As they rub the bark from trees, male deer leave behind chemicals produced by the glands intheir foreheads, creating a scent that other deer can detect.

  E.The height of a buck rub, the type of tree used, and the direction in which the deer appliesthe rub can give different kinds of information to other deer.

  F.Buck rubs are created close to the breeding season of deer and may affect the timing offertility in the female deer that visit the rubs.

  14.A對應(yīng)原文第二段的兩個scientists的觀點。但兩者并沒有這樣的邏輯關(guān)系。因此不選。B正確，對應(yīng)原文第四段。說rubs可以幫助identify。C正確，對應(yīng)原文最后一段。D文章中已經(jīng)對height，types oftree，direction有了明確的描寫。Information的區(qū)別是由氣味傳遞的。因此此選項不對，不選。E文章并沒有提到相關(guān)的內(nèi)容。F正確，對應(yīng)原文第五段，里面出現(xiàn)的help physiologically induce andsynchronize fertility in females。

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