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  Characteristics of Roman Pottery

  The pottery of ancient Romans is remarkablein several ways. The high quality of Roman potteryis very easy to appreciate when handling actualpieces of tableware or indeed kitchenware andamphorae (the large jars used throughout the Mediterranean for the transport and storage ofliquids, such as wine and oil). However, it is impossible to do justice to Roman wares on thepage, even when words can be backed up by photographs and drawing. Most Roman pottery islight and smooth to touch and very tough, although, like all pottery, it shatters if dropped ona hard surface. It is generally made with carefully selected and purified clay, worked to thin-walled and standardized shapes on a fast wheel and fired in a kiln (pottery oven) capable ofensuring a consistent finish. With handmade pottery, inevitably there are slight differencesbetween individual vessels of the same design and occasional minor blemishes (flaws). Butwhat strikes the eye and the touch most immediately and most powerfully with Roman potteryis its consistent high quality.

  古羅馬的陶器在諸多方面成就驚人。當把玩古羅馬陶制餐具或廚房用具和雙耳陶罐(遍及整個地中海地區用以運輸或儲存酒或油之類液體的大型陶罐)時，人們對其良好的質量贊不絕口。盡管有照片和畫像的記錄，卻無法輕易的對羅馬陶器做出公正評價。絕大部分羅馬陶器都很輕很光滑也很堅韌，盡管，像所有陶器一樣，當撞到堅硬地面時也容易破碎。它們一般由精心篩選和凈化后的粘土在快速旋轉的圓盤上制成壁薄而形狀標準的坯子，然后放入陶器窯中燒結，并確保一氣呵成。由于是手工制作，同一型號的陶器難免有微小差別和瑕疵。但羅馬陶器讓人瞠目結舌的最直接最有力的是它那一以貫之的高質量。

  This is not just an aesthetic consideration but also a practical one. These vessels aresolid (brittle, but not fragile), they are pleasant and easy to handle (being light andsmooth), and, with their hard and sometimes glossy (smooth and shiny) surfaces, they holdliquids well and are easy to wash. Furthermore, their regular and standardized shapes wouldhave made them simple to stack and store. When people today are shown a very ordinaryRoman pot and, in particular, are allowed to handle it, they often comment on how modernit looks and feels, and they need to be convinced of its true age.

  這不僅是審美的考慮也有實用之處。這些容器都很堅硬(脆卻并不易碎)，很優雅也很好用(質輕而光滑)，其表面堅硬而有時帶有光澤。它們很適合盛放液體也很易清潔。而且，它們形狀規則且標準，極易堆放儲藏。當將這些陶器展示給今天的人們，并允許他們把玩時，他們常常認為其形狀和手感如此現代以至于很難相信其實際年齡。

  As impressive as the quality of Roman pottery is its sheer massive quantity. Whenconsidering quantities, we would ideally like to have some estimates for overall productionfrom particular sites of pottery manufacture and for overall consumption at specificsettlements. Unfortunately, it is in the nature of the archaeological evidence, which is almostinvariable only a sample of what once existed, that such figures will always be elusive.However, no one who has ever worked in the field would question the abundance of Romanpottery, particularly in the Mediterranean region. This abundance is notable in Romansettlements (especially urban sites) where the labor that archaeologists have to put into thewashing and sorting of potsherds (fragments of pottery) constitutes a high proportion of thetotal work during the initial phases of excavation.

  和其高質量一樣讓人印象深刻的是羅馬陶器的巨大的數量。當確定數量時，我們常喜歡去評估某一陶器生產地點生產陶器的總量以及某地居民對陶器的消費總量。不幸的是，考古證據本質上只能是歷史存在的一個樣本，因而由此得到的數據并不可靠。但是，那些曾經在現場工作過的人絕不會懷疑羅馬陶器的數量，尤其是在地中海地區。陶器數量的羅馬人聚集區(尤其是城市遺址)家喻戶曉。在那些遺址上考古學家們在挖掘的第一階段不得不花費很大比例的勞動力去清洗和整理陶器碎片。

  Only rarely can we derive any “real” quantities from deposits of broken pots. However,there is one exceptional dump, which does represent a very large part of the site’s totalhistory of consumption and for which an estimate of quantity has been produced. On the leftbank of the Tiber River in Rome, by one of the river ports of the ancient city, is a substantialhill some 50 meters high called Monte Testaccio. It is made up entirely of broken oil amphorae,mainly of the second and third centuries A.D. It has been estimated that Monte Testacciocontains the remains of some 53 million amphorae, in which around 6,000million liters of oilwere imported into the city from overseas, imports into imperial Rome were supported by thefull might of the state and were therefore quite exceptional—but the size of the operations atMonte Testaccio, and the productivity and complexity that lay behind them, nonethelesscannot fail to impress. This was a society with similarities to modern one—moving goods on agigantic scale, manufacturing high-quality containers to do so, and occasionally, as here,even discarding them on delivery.

  從陶罐碎片堆中我們很難推算出真正的數量。但也有例外。有一處遺址出土的陶器代表了其曾經的陶器消費的很大一部分，因此可以據此推測出其數量。羅馬第伯爾河左岸上一座古代城市碼頭的旁邊有一座約50米高的大山，叫做Monte Testaccio. 該山全部由公元二到三世紀的油罐碎片組成。據估計，Monte Testaccio山上約有5300萬只油罐并由此從海外進口了約6億升的油。向羅馬帝國的進口由國家全力支持，因此也非常例外----但是Monte Testaccio的制作規模及其背后的生產力和復雜性卻絕對不容忽視。

  Roman pottery was transported not only in large quantities but also over substantialdistances. Many Roman pots, in particular amphorae and the fine wares designed for use attables, could travel hundreds of miles—all over the Mediterranean and also further afield. Butmaps that show the various spots where Roman pottery of a particular type has been foundtell only part of the story. What is more significant than any geographical spread is the accessthat different levels of society had to good-quality products. In all but the remotest regions ofthe empire, Roman pottery of a high standard is common at the sites of humble villages andisolated farmsteads

  羅馬陶器不僅運輸數量龐大而且其運輸距離遙遠。很多羅馬陶罐，尤其是雙耳陶罐和桌上餐具可能被運輸了幾百英里----遍及整個地中海乃至更遠。但是顯示各種羅馬陶器出土地點的地圖只是故事的一部分。比地理上的廣闊分布更重要的是社會的不同階層都能夠使用這種高質量的陶罐。在帝國的幾乎所有的偏遠地區，高質量的羅馬陶器在其最凋敝的村莊和偏遠田野中都隨處可見。

  托福閱讀試題

  1.Paragraph 1 indicates which of the following about Roman pottery?

  A.Roman amphorae were of much higher quality overall than other Roman pottery.

  B.Roman pottery can best be appreciated when actual pieces are handled.

  C.Roman pottery declined slightly in quality when the use of fast wheels and kilns was introduced.

  D.Roman practical tableware spread more rapidly across the Mediterranean than amphorae did.

  1.對應原文第二句。A原文并沒有對amphorae和pottery的比較。C原文提到了快速轉輪和燒窯的使用，但并沒說因此陶器質量就下降了。D提到了陶器在Mediterranean的廣泛使用，但是沒有種類間的比較。

  2.All of the following are mentioned in paragraph 1 as characteristics of Roman pottery EXCEPT

  A.It was usually made with high-quality clay.

  B.It generally did not weigh much.

  C.It did not break as easily as other ancient pottery.

  D.It sometimes had imperfections.

  2.只有C和原文的描寫沖突。

  3.According to paragraph 2, which of the following is NOT true of Roman vessels?

  A.They were good containers for liquids.

  B.Their shapes allowed for easy stacking and storing.

  C.They sometimes had shiny surfaces.

  D.Their true age is immediately apparent.

  3.四個選項分別對應紅色標記部分。D選項對應的最后一句和原文矛盾，原文說一眼看上去這個pot是非常現代化的。但實際很古老了。因此its true age并不明顯。D錯誤。

  4.The author mentions the work of archaeologists in paragraph 3 in order to

  A.support the idea that pottery was produced in large quantities by the Romans.

  B.illustrate how hard it is for archaeologists to find complete pieces of Roman pottery.

  C.contrast archaeological sites in Roman urban areas with other sites in the Mediterranean.

  D.explain why the quantities of pottery found vary significantly from one site to another.

  4.這一段的主題就是第一句，強調了massive quantity。因此后面提到work of archaelogists也是為了支持這個主題。因此選A。

  5.The word "substantial" in the passage(paragraph 4)is closest in meaning to

  A.protected.

  B.man-made.

  C.large.

  D.famous.

  5.Substantial是大量的，實質的等意。A是保護的;B是人工的;D是著名的。只有C是大的。所以選擇C。而且這里也描述了50 meters high也是描述了它的大小。所以應選擇與大小有關的。

  6.According to paragraph 4, Monte Testaccio is particularly important forarchaeologists because archaeologists were able to

  A.conclude how amphorae manufacturing increased rapidly after the second century A.D..

  B.find the locations where most of the amphorae in the Roman Empire were produced.

  C.obtain relatively accurate calculations of the quantities of amphorae used over time in that place.

  D.discover that the Roman state had supported amphorae production.

  6.這里介紹Monte Testaccil是在支持本段的論點。回到原文這段的第一句可以看到原文說"很難通過broken pot來確定那個時期的pot產量，而Monte Testaccil確實個例外。所以也就是說可以通過這個dump遺址得到當時的quantities。選C

  7.The word "entirely" in the passage(paragraph 4)is closest in meaning to

  A.apparently.

  B.completely.

  C.basically.

  D.mostly.

  7.Entirely是完全的，整個的。A是明顯的，B是完全的，C是基本的，D是大部分的。這里B最符合。

  8.Paragraph 4 indicates which of the following about the port on the Tiber River near Monte Testaccio?

  A.It was built around the third century A.D..

  B.It was close to areas where large quantities of oil were produced.

  C.It was in use only for a very short period of time.

  D.It had impressive level of commercial activity.

  8.根據Tiber River定位，看到后面的描述說around 6000 million liters of oil were imported into city form oversea。那么也就是說當時的進出口貿易非常繁華。對應答案D。

  9.The statement in paragraph 4 that amphorae delivered to the port near Monte Testaccio were occasionally discarded support which of the following?

  A.Traders at the port were often careless.

  B.The quality of the amphorae used at the port was not very good.

  C.The scale of the trade made it possible to waste quality amphorae sometimes.

  D.The importing of oil from overseas gradually declined, reducing the need for pottery containers.

  9.根據原文discarded定位到原文最后一句。如同現代工業社會一樣，大量生產和需求，但是背后的生產力并不能滿足之類的。所以在運送的時候也是如此。有時大量運送就難免會有打碎的。因此選擇C。A原文沒提到;B原文也沒說，而且前文一直在說pot都是high quality的。D這里也沒說到oil和pottery的關系。

  10.The statement that "maps show the various spots where Roman pottery of aparticular type has been found tell only part of the story" makes the point that

  A.maps indicate where specific pottery styles have been found, but they do not indicate where these styles originated.

  B.maps show the geographical spread of Roman pottery but not the people who had access to it.

  C.maps do not usually include pottery styles found in the remotest regions the Roman Empire.

  D.archaeologist studying Roman pottery need to use a range of techniques in their investigations.

  10.這里說Map只是tell part of the story，那么證明能得到roman pottery的不僅是map描畫的范圍，應該會有更大的范圍;從而來支持這一段的中心句，over substantial distances。A選項錯誤，styles是從羅馬來的。C，D跟原文也沒關系。而B符合，說maps在一定程度上說明了羅馬陶器的地理散播，但并不是所有能得到陶器的人。

  11.The word "humble" in the passage is closest in meaning to

  A.rural.

  B.distant.

  C.ancient.

  D.modest.

  11.Humble謙虛的，簡陋的。也可以通過and的并列形式推斷詞義，后面是isolated，與世隔絕的，那么也可以引申為，偏遠的，落后的。所以humble應該是相近的意思。此處A是干擾項，鄉村的，田園的。但是少了簡陋那層意思。用D最合適。

  12.The word "particular" in the passage is closest in meaning to

  A.specific.

  B.common.

  C.ancient.

  D.superior.

  12.Particular特別的，特指的。A是特別的，符合原文意思。這里也說得是什么的類型。可以依照上文推斷。B是常見的，C是原始的，D是先進的。

  13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit? That is because residents of a city did not usually discard used pottery at the same site over a long period of time.

  ■【A】Only rarely can we derive any "real" quantities from deposits of brokenpots. ■【B】However, there is one exceptional dump, which does represent a very large part of the site's total history of consumption and for which an estimate of quantity has been produced. ■【C】On the left bank of the Tiber River in Rome, by one of the river ports of the ancient city, is a substantial hill some 50 meters high called Monte Testaccio. ■【D】It is made up entirely of broken oil amphorae, mainly of the second and third centuries A.D. It has been estimated that Monte Testaccio contains the remains of some 53 million amphorae, in which around 6,000 million liters of oil were imported into the city from overseas,imports into imperial Rome were supported by the full might of the state and were therefore quite exceptional- but the size of the operations at Monte Testaccio, and the productivity and complexity that lay behind them,nonetheless cannot fail to impress. This was a society with similarities to modernone-moving goods on a gigantic scal, manufacturing high-quality containers to do so, and occasionally, as here, even discarding them on delivery.

  13.這里要插入的句子中出現了that is because，那么that肯定是指代了前文的某個現象，然后用要插入的這句話進行解釋。句子第一句說，很少有遺址可以表明這種陶器的產量，第二局說但是有一個例外。那么應該是先解釋原因，再說例外的情況。That指代的就是第一句話描述的現象。因此插入第二個空。

  14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.

  The pottery of the ancient RomanEmpire is remarkable.

  A.Roman pottery is considered to be practical and of consistently high quality.

  B.Roman pottery was transported over long distances, and different levels of society had access to quality pottery.

  C.Archaeologists looking for the remains of Roman pottery concentrate on urban sites because that is where the oldest pieces of kitchenware and amphorae have been found.

  D.Even though the exact quantity of pottery produced by the Romans is almost impossible to calculate, it is certain that is was produced in large quantities.

  E.People are not familiar with the whole range of pottery of Romans created because most of the available pieces represent only a limited number of styles and shapes.

  F.It is still unclear to archaeologists what the role of the Roman state in the commercial success of Roman pottery was.

  14.A、B正確，對應文章第一段和第二段，第一段重點說high quality，第二段說不僅是審美考慮也是practical的。E正確，對于原文最后一段。

 Competition

  When several individuals of the same species or of several different species depend on the same limited resource, a situation may arise that is referred to as competition. The existence of competition has been long known to naturalists; its effects were described by Darwin in considerable detail. Competition among individuals of the same species (intraspecies competition), one of the major mechanisms of natural selection, is the concern of evolutionary biology. Competition among the individuals of different species (interspecies competition) is a major concern of ecology. It is one of the factors controlling the size of competing populations, and extreme cases it may lead to the extinction of one of the competing species. This was described by Darwin for indigenous New Zealand species of animals and plants, which died out when competing species from Europe were introduced.

  當同一物種的不同個體或不同的物種都依靠同一有限資源時，這種情況往往會引發成所謂的競爭。競爭的存在已為生物學家們所熟知，其結果也已被達爾文詳盡敘述過。同一物種不同個體之間的競爭(種內競爭)，作為自然選擇的一個主要原理，現在屬于進化生物學。不同物種個體之間的競爭(種間競爭)是生態學的主要部分。它是控制有競爭關系的種群數量的一個因素，而其極端情況可能導致競爭的一方滅絕。達爾文在描述新西蘭本土動植物物種在與引進的歐洲物種的競爭中滅絕時講到該情況。

  No serious competition exists when the major needed resource is in superabundant supply, as in most cases of the coexistence of herbivores (plant eaters). Furthermore, most species do not depend entirely on a single resource, if the major resource for a species becomes scarce, the species can usually shift to alternative resources. If more than one species is competing for a scarce resource, the competing species usually switch to different alternative resources. Competition is usually most severe among close relatives with similar demands on the environment. But it may also occur among totally unrelated forms that compete for the same resource, such as seed-eating rodents and ants. The effects of such competition are graphically demonstrated when all the animals or all the plants in an ecosystem come into competition, as happened 2 million years ago at the end of Pliocene, when North and South America became joined by the Isthmus of Panama. North and South American species migrating across the Isthmus now came into competition with each other. The result was the extermination of a large fraction of the South American mammals, which were apparently unable to withstand the competition from invading North American species—although added predation was also an important factor.

  當主要需求的資源能充分供給時，競爭就不會很激烈，正如很多情況下植食動物都能夠共存。而且絕大部分物種并不只依靠一種資源，當某物種的主要資源匱乏時，它們常轉向其它候選資源。如果多個物種競爭同一稀缺資源，他們常會轉向不同的候選資源。近親之間的競爭往往最激烈，因為他們對環境有相似需求。但激烈競爭也可能發生在毫不相關卻需要同一資源的物種之間，例如吃種子的嚙齒動物和螞蟻。當一個生態系統中的所有動植物都參與到競爭中來時競爭的影響將表現得淋漓盡致，比如在兩百萬年前上新世末期當南、北美洲在巴拿馬地峽處聚攏時所發生的一切。南、北美洲的物種可以穿越地峽而相互競爭。結果是大量南美洲哺乳動物因抵抗不了來自北美洲物種的競爭而滅絕----盡管過度捕殺也是一個很重要的因素。

  To what extent competition determines the composition of a community and the density of particular species has been the source of considerable controversy. The problem is that competition ordinarily cannot be observed directly but must be inferred from the spread or increase of one species and the concurrent reduction or disappearance of another species. The Russian biologist G. F. Gause performed numerous two-species experiments in the laboratory, in which one of the species became extinct when only a single kind of resource was available. On the basis of these experiments and of field observations, the so-called law of competitive exclusion was formulated, according to which no two species can occupy the same niche. Numerous seeming exceptions to this law have since been found, but they can usually be explained as cases in which the two species, even though competing for a major joint resource, did not really occupy exactly the same niche.

  競爭在多大程度上決定群落的組成和某特定物種的密度一直備受爭議。問題是競爭通常無法直接觀察得到而必須通過某一物種的擴張或增加而另外一種物種同時減少或消失的對比中推測出來。俄羅斯生物學家G. F. Gause進行了大量的兩物種的室內實驗，結果表明當只提供一種資源時其中一個物種將會滅絕。基于以上實驗和實地觀察，所謂的競爭滅絕法則是成立的，因為兩個物種不可能同時完全占有同一有限資源。不過也發現了很多例外，但這些情況下兩個物種，盡管會爭奪某一主要資源，但它們爭奪的資源不完全相同。

  Competition among species is of considerable evolutionary importance. The physical structure of species competing for resources in the same ecological niche tends to gradually evolve in ways that allow them to occupy different niches. Competing species also tend to change their ranges so that their territories no longer overlap. The evolutionary effect of competition on species has been referred to as “species selection”; however, this description is potentially misleading. Only the individuals of a species are subject to the pressures of natural selection. The effect on the well-being and existence of a species is just the result of the effects of selection on all the individuals of the species. Thus species selection is actually a result of individual selection.

  物種間的競爭對進化至關重要。爭奪同一生態資源的物種趨向于朝著依賴不同資源的方向進化。相互競爭的物種會逐漸改變他們的活動范圍使其領地不再重疊。競爭對進化的影響稱為“物種選擇”，但這一描述有很大誤導性。只有某一物種中的個體才能面臨自然選擇的壓力。某一物種的繁盛或生存正是其所有個體自然選擇的結果。因此物種選擇實際上是個體選擇的結果。

  Competition may occur for any needed resource. In the case of animals it is usually food; in the case of forest plants it may be light; in the case of substrate inhabitants it may be space, as in many shallow-water bottom-dwelling marine organisms. Indeed, it may be for any of the factors, physical as well as biotic, that are essential for organisms. Competition is usually the more severe the denser the population. Together with predation, it is the most important density-dependent factor in regulating population growth.

  任何必須的資源都可能引發競爭。這種資源對動物而言常是食物，對森林植物而言可能是陽光，對地面物種來說可能是空間，比如很多生活在淺海海床上生物。實際上，競爭對象可能是生物所必需的任何生物的或非生物的因素。通常生物密度越大，競爭越激烈。和捕殺一起，競爭是與生物密度相關的調控生物密度增長的重要因素。

  托福閱讀試題

  1.The phrase "mechanisms of natural selection"in the passage(paragraph 1)is closest inmeaning to

  A.types of natural selection.

  B.dangers of natural selection.

  C.problems natural selection solves.

  D.ways natural selection works.

  1.Mechanism本身是機制，原理的意思。從原文也可以推斷出來。我們都知道進化是由于"物競天擇"的原因，原文這一句就是這個意思。因此這道題選擇D。

  2.According to paragraph 1, what is one effect of competition among individuals ofdifferent species?

  A.It results in the eventual elimination of the resource for which they are competing.

  B.It leads to competition among individuals of the same species.

  C.It encourages new species to immigrate to an area.

  D.It controls the number of individuals in the competing populations.

  2.通過competition among individuals of differentspecies定位到紅色標注句子，但這句并沒提到任何一個選項，繼續往后看，下一句的主語是代詞it，指代intraspecies competition，因此后面也是對物種間競爭的描述。而這一句提到了是控制population的因素，對應了選項D。

  3.The word "indigenous" in the passage(paragraph 1)is closest in meaning to

  A.native.

  B.rate.

  C.most.

  D.numerous.

  3.Indigenous是本土的意思=A選項。B是稀少的，C是大部分的，D是無數的。 這個詞義也可以從原文推斷。原文最后半句，which引導的從句說由于歐洲引進的種族和which指代的東西競爭，是which滅絕了。往前看which引導的是"indigenous"新西蘭動植物。可以推測A選項代入最合適。

  4.In paragraph 1, why does the author mention what happened in New Zealand?

  A.To indicate that Darwin understood the importance of competition.

  B.To illustrate that competition can lead to the extinction of species.

  C.To identify where the idea of competition among species first arose.

  D.To argue against the idea that the process of selection is a natural occurrence.

  4.這一段提到種族間競爭時的論點是可以控制不同種族的數量。然后舉出了新西蘭動植物作為了例子，而例子都是用來證明和支持觀點的。因此選擇B選項。

  5.According to paragraph 2, competition is not usually a significant factor among twocoexisting species when

  A.one of the species has only recently moved into the territory of the other.

  B.the species are closely related to each other.

  C.the population of one species is much larger than that of the other.

  D.both of the species are herbivores.

  5.根據coexisting species定位到原文處，前文就是原因，因為資源供給充足。而coexistence ofherbivores是給出的例證，coexistence herbivores間沒有激烈競爭是因為它們都吃草，而草資源是非常充足的。理想答案是當資源充足時，競爭不會成為重要的影響因素。但原文沒有，唯一合適的選擇就是D，也就是原文提到的例證。

  6.The word "graphically" in the passage(paragraph 2)is closest in meaning to

  A.vividly.

  B.frequently.

  C.broadly.

  D.typically.

  6.Graph是圖畫的意思，graphically也就是用圖形地，可以推出生動地的意思。因此選擇A. vividly. B選項是頻繁地，C是廣泛地，D是特別地。都不符合。

  7.In paragraph 2, why does the author talk about what happened as a result of Northand South America becoming joined at the Isthmus of Panama?

  A.To make the point that predation can have as much effect on species survival ascompetition does.

  B.To show how the ability to switch to an alternative resource can give a species acompetitive advantage.

  C.To account for the current species composition of North and South America.

  D.To provide an example of the serious effects of competition between unrelated species.

  7.引出南北美洲物種競爭結果的主句是"The effects of such competition are graphicallydemonstrated…"由此推斷，南北美洲動物競爭的結果就是為了說明競爭的Effects。因此選擇D。A原文提到了，在最后的半句，但是前面的although說明了這不是主要觀點。

  8.Paragraph 3 supports the idea that Gause's experiments were important becausethey

  A.provided a situation in which competition could be removed from the interaction betweentwo species.

  B.showed that previous ideas about the extent to which competition determines thecomposition of a community were completely mistaken.

  C.helped establish that competition will remove all but one species from any givenecological niche.

  D.offered evidence that competition between species is minimal when there is anoverabundance of a single food source.

  8.通過Gause's experiments定位，文章在描述完實驗內容后，說on the basis of these experiment，那么說明后面就是實驗得到的結論。也就是law of competitive exclusion. 因此選擇C。

  9.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information inthehighlighted sentence in the passage(paragraph 3)? Incorrect choices change themeaningin important ways or leave out essential information.

  A.Apparent exceptions to this law usually involves cases in which two species compete for thesame major resource but occupy slightly different niches.

  B.Although it may appear that two species always have different niches, many exceptions showthat species compete with each other.

  C.Cases in which two species not only compete for a shared resource but also occupy similarniches are considered exceptions to this law.

  D.Cases in which the two species do not occupy that same niche yet still compete for thesame resource are believed to be exceptions to this law.

  9.原文中句子的主干是 seeming exceptions have been found，然后存在了轉折邏輯之后說這種例外是可以被解釋的。因此只有A符合。B，C，D都在一定程度上改變了原句的意思。

  10.According to paragraph 4, how does competition affect evolution?

  A.It results in the evolution of physical structures that allow the species to compete witheach other more effectively.

  B.It results I the evolutionary extinction of all but one of the competing species.

  C.It results in the competing species evolving in such a way that they no longer compete forthe same resources.

  D.It results in the competing species evolving to become so much like each other thatcompetition between them eventually disappears.

  10.第一句就提到了問題所問的內容，說competition具有evolutionary importance。后面應該就是具體的解釋。往后看說同一小生態環境中的競爭物種tend to….那么tend to的內容就是答案。對應的就是C，說使得其領地不再重疊，也就是不再同一區域內進行資源競爭了。

  11.According to paragraph 4, "species selection" is a misleading term because it

  A.overemphasizes the role of selection pressure in species extinction.

  B.suggests that selection pressures directly influence whole species.

  C.does not make a distinction between species extinction and species evolution.

  D.suggests that extinction always results whenever there is a competition.

  11.通過species selection定位到標注處，后面出現了轉折，說這個描寫是misleading的。往后肯定就會解釋原因。原文說natural selection其實是直接作用在individual上的，而不是species上。所以錯誤。對應了B選項，"species selection 暗示了選擇壓力是直接作用于整個物種上的。"

  12.The word "regulating" in the passage(paragraph 5)is closest in meaning to

  A.controlling.

  B.explaining.

  C.observing.

  D.stopping.

  12.最后一句是說它是最重要的在怎么樣數量增長中，影響密度的因素。很容易理解是控制。因此選A。B是解釋，C是觀察，D是停止。

  13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could beadded to the passage.Where would the sentence best fit? That is, as the density of apopulation increases, competition has a greater impact and leads to greater mortality.

  Competition may occur for any needed resource. ■【A】In the case of animals it is usually food;in the case of forest plants it may be light; in the case of substrate inhabitants it may be space,as in many shallow-waterbottom-dwelling marine organisms. ■【B】Indeed, it may be forany of the factors,physical as well as biotic, that are essential for organisms. ■【C】Competition isusually the more severe the denser the population. ■【D】Togetherwith predation, itis the most important density-dependent factor in regulating populationgrowth.

  13.要插入的句子開頭的that 一定是指代前文的一句話。并且跟density有關。而原文第一次出現density有關的詞是在D選項前的一句話"denser"，插入后發現，插入的就是在進一步說明D前的那一句。而后文又補充了predation和competition對density的共同作用，邏輯關系吻合，意思通順。

  14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage isprovided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices thatexpress the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong inthe summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or areminor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.

  When necessary resources are limited, competition can occur among individuals of the samespecies or of different species.

  A.Competition can eliminate a species, but since most species do not depend on a singleresource, competition is often reduced by switching to alternative resources.

  B.Investigation of the ecological role of competition is difficult because ordinarily thecompetition cannot be observed directly and must be inferred from its presumed effects.

  C.Competition between a pair of species tends to lessen over time because the species tendto evolve to occupy different ecological niches and ranges.

  D.Competition between individual of the same species is usually for food whereas competitionbetween species is usually for habitat.

  E.Experiments and field observation have established that competition between species isstrong enough to prevent two species from occupying the same ecological niche.

  F.Competition is usually strongest when the density of the competing populations is the same.

  14.A正確，對應原文第二段第二，三句。B原文并沒有這樣的意思，一直在說是在競爭resource，不選。C后半句在原文中提到了，但s是并沒有與前半句的這樣的因果關系，不選。D正確，對應原文第3段的on thebasis of那一句。E正確，對應原文第四段的第二句。

  The History of Waterpower

  Moving water was one of the earliest energysources to be harnessed to reduce the workload ofpeople and animals. No one knows exactly when thewaterwheel was invented, but irrigation systemsexisted at least 5,000 years ago, and it seems probable that the earliest waterpower device wasthe noria, a waterwheel that raised water for irrigation in attached jars. The device appears tohave evolved no later than the fifth century B.C., perhaps independently in different regions ofthe Middle and Far East.

  流水是人類最早利用的能量來源，以減少人和牲畜的工作負擔。無法知曉水輪是什么時候發明的，但灌溉系統至少在五千年前就已存在。最早的水力設施很可能是戽水車，一種通過附帶的瓦罐將水舉起以便灌溉的水輪。這種設備在公元前十五世紀就可能獨立的出現在中東和遠東的一些地區了。

  The earliest waterpower mills were probably vertical-axis mills for grinding corn, knownas Norse or Greek mills, which seem to have appeared during the first or second century B.C. inthe Middle East and a few centuries later in Scandinavia. In the following centuries, increasinglysophisticated waterpower mills were built throughout the Roman Empire and beyond itsboundaries in the Middle East and northern Europe. In England, the Saxons are thought to haveused both horizontal and vertical-axis wheels. The first documented English mill was in theeighth century, but three centuries later about 5,000 were recorded, suggesting that everysettlement of any size had its mill.

  最早用于研磨谷物的水力磨可能都是垂直軸的，比如可能在公元前一到二世紀出現在中東的希臘磨以及幾個世紀之后出現在斯堪的納維亞的斯堪的納維亞磨。后來的幾個世紀里，更加先進的水磨在整個羅馬帝國及其邊界以外的中東和北歐各地興建起來。在英國，撒克遜人可能既有水平軸的也有垂直軸的水磨。有記錄的最早的英國磨出現在八世紀，但三百年后大約有5000口水磨記錄再案，也就是說幾乎每一處居民聚集地，無論規模大小如何都有自己的水磨。

  Raising water and grinding corn were by no means the only uses of the waterpower mill,and during the following centuries, the applications of waterpower kept pace with thedeveloping technologies of mining, iron working, paper making, and the wool and cottonindustries. Water was the main source of mechanical power, and by the end of theseventeenth century, England alone is thought to have had some 20,000 working mill. Therewas much debate on the relative efficiencies of different types of waterwheels. The period fromabout 1650 until 1800 saw some excellent scientific and technical investigations of differentdesigns. They revealed output powers ranging from about 1 horsepower to perhaps 60 for thelargest wheels and confirmed that for maximum efficiency, the water should pass across theblades as smoothly as possible and fall away with minimum speed, having given up almost allof its kinetic energy. (They also proved that, in principle, the overshot wheel, a type ofwheel in which an overhead streamof water powers the wheel, should win the efficiencycompetition.)

  舉升水和研磨谷物絕不是水力磨的唯一用途，在后來幾個世紀中，對水力的利用與采礦、煉鐵、造紙以及棉毛紡織工業的技術進步同步。水力是機械能的主要來源，在十七世紀末，光英國就有約兩萬座水磨。不類型水輪的效率的高低向來爭議很多。從1650到1800年間，人們設計了一些在科學和技術上都很先進的水輪。它們的輸出功率從1馬力到最大的60馬力，并且人們確信要想產生最高效率，水應該從葉輪上盡可能光滑的流過，并以最小的速度落下，以便輸出其幾乎所有動能。(已經證明從原則上，上射水輪，一種利用從頂部傾瀉的水流驅動葉輪的水輪，的效率最高。)

  But then steam power entered the scene, putting the whole future of waterpower indoubt. An energy analyst writing in the year 1800 would have painted a very pessimisticpicture of the future for waterpower. The coal-fired steam engine was taking over, and thewaterwheel was fast becoming obsolete. However, like many later experts, this one would havesuffered from an inability to see into the future. A century later the picture was completelydifferent: by then, the world had an electric industry, and a quarter of its generating capacitywas water powered.

  但當蒸汽動力進入歷史舞臺，水力的前途就備受懷疑了。一位能源分析者在1800年寫的一篇論文給水力的前途鋪上了一層悲觀的色調。燃煤蒸汽動力正在普及，而水輪則被迅速遺棄。然而，正如后來很多專家所言，這位分析者對未來過于短視。一個世紀之后，情況完全不同：那時世界已經有了電力工業，而四分之一的發電能力都來自水力。

  The growth of the electric-power industry was the result of a remarkable series ofscientific discoveries and development in electrotechnology during the nineteenth century, butsignificant changes in what we might now call hydro (water) technology also played their part.In 1832, the year of Michael Faraday’s discovery that a changing magnetic field produces anelectric field, a young French engineer patented a new and more efficient waterwheel. Hisname was Nenoit Fourneyron, and his device was the first successful water turbine. (The wordturbine comes from the Latin turbo: something that spins). The waterwheel, unaltered fornearly 2,000 years, had finally been superseded.

  十九世紀電力工業的崛起源自一系列的科學發現和電工業的發展，但我們現在目睹的水力技術的重大進步也發揮了重要作用。在1832年，當Michael Faraday發現了變化的磁場能夠產生電場理論時，一位年輕的法國工程師申請了一種新型的更有效率的水輪專利。他的名字叫Nenoit Fourneyron，而他的設備是最早的成功的水力渦輪。水輪在保持了近2000年的原始模樣后終于被超越了。

  Half a century of development was needed before Faraday’s discoveries in electricity weretranslated into full-scale power stations. In 1881 the Godalming power station in Surrey,England, on the banks of the Wey River, created the world’s first public electricity supply. Thepower source of this most modern technology was a traditional waterwheel. Unfortunately thisearly plant experienced the problem common to many forms of renewable energy: the flow inthe Wey River was unreliable, and the waterwheel was soon replaced by a steam engine.

  在半個世紀里的時間里，法拉第的電學理論終于發展成了設施齊備的發電廠。1881年在英國的薩里，在衛河河畔建成了世界上第一座公用水力發電站----Godalming 發電站。這種現代化的發電站所用的仍是傳統的水輪。不幸的是，這座早起的水力發電站也遭受了所有可再生能源的共同弊端：衛河的水流極不穩定，而水輪很快被蒸汽機代替了。

  From this primitive start, the electric industry grew during the final 20 years of thenineteenth century at a rate seldom if ever exceeded by any technology. The capacity ofindividual power stations, many of them hydro plants, rose from a few kilowatts to over amegawatt in less than a decade.

  從這次原始的嘗試開始，電工業在十九世紀最后的二十年中以比任何其它技術都快得多的速度發展起來。單個發電站，很多都是水力發電站，的發電能力從幾千瓦在不到十年時間內就發展到了幾兆瓦。

  托福閱讀試題

  1.The word "harnessed" in thepassage(paragraph 1)is closest in meaning to

  A.known.

  B.depended on.

  C.recognized.

  D.utilized.

  1.這個單詞后面出現了to，表目的或作用，整句話的意思就是水資源被用于減輕人和動物的勞動。所以很容易推出文中單詞harnessed是使用的意思，因此選擇D。

  2.In paragraph 1, uncertainty is expressed about all of the following aspects of theearly development of waterpower EXCEPT

  A.when exactly the very first waterpower devices were invented.

  B.when exactly the very first waterpower devices were developed.

  C.whether water was one of the earliest sources of power to be used by humans.

  D.whether the very earliest waterpower devices arose independently.

  2.這個題可以看著選項到原文照對應點，A對應原文第二句，正確，不選。B對應雖然沒有直接在原文中提到，但是也可以有這層意思，可以作為待定選項。但看到C之后就可以排除B了，因為C和原文第一句有了直接沖突，因此選擇C。D對應這段的最后一句(出現了perhaps)。

  3.According to paragraph 2, what was true of the waterpower mills built throughoutthe Roman Empire?

  A.Most had horizontal-axis wheels.

  B.Their design was based on mills that had long been used in Scandinavia.

  C.Their design was more popular beyond the Empire's boundaries than it was within theEmpire.

  D.They are more advanced than the mills used in the Middle East at an earlier time.

  3.根據Throughout the roman empire定位到原文紅色標注位置，對于waterpower mill的修飾是increasingly sophisticated也就是更復雜，更先進。因此選擇D。

  4.The phrase "the application of waterpower" in the passage (paragraph 3)is closestin meaning to

  A.the uses to which waterpower was put.

  B.the improvement made to waterpower.

  C.the method by which waterpower was supplied.

  D.the source of waterpower available.

  4.這里的application指的是水力資源的應用，也就是作用。因此選擇A水利的用處。

  5.According to paragraph 4, which of the following was discovered as a result ofscientific and technical investigations of waterpower conducted between 1650 and1800?

  A.Some types of small waterwheel can produce as much horsepower as the very largestwheels.

  B.Waterwheels operate more efficiently when water falls away from their blades slowly thanwhen water falls away quickly.

  C.Waterwheel efficiency can be improved by increasing the amount of kinetic energy watercontains as it passes over a waterwheel's blades.

  D.Unlike other types of waterwheels, the overshot wheel is capable of producing more than 60horsepower units of energy.

  5.通過scientific and technical investigation定位到紅色標注部分，后面幾句就是調查的結果了，原文說輸出的功率從1-60馬力不等，水流越smooth，下落越慢，效率就越高。英雌，A選項，原文沒提到。B選項正確。C. water contain的動能并不能改變，而是要盡可能的使其含有的動能釋放出來。D提到了overshotwheel，對應本段最后一句。但是原文并沒說這種輪就能輸出高于60馬單位的能量。

  6.The word "pessimistic" in the passage is closest in meaning to

  A.negative.

  B.unlikely.

  C.surprising.

  D.incomplete.

  6.根據前面一句，有了蒸汽動力以后，水力資源就被put in doubt了。因此后面修飾水力資源利用前景的一定是一個負面的詞。因此選擇A，負面的。B是不相似的，C是令人吃驚的，D是不完整的。

  7.The term "by then" in the passage refers to

  A.by the time steam power entered the scene.

  B.by the year 1800.

  C.by the year 1900.

  D.by the time waterwheel was becoming obsolete.

  7.因為前文提到在1800年，水力資源利用衰敗，by then的前半句說a century later，因此應該是一百年以后，也就是1900年。

  8.According to paragraph 5, why did waterpower become more importantly by 1900?

  A.Better waterwheel designs improved the efficiency of waterpower.

  B.Waterpower was needed to operate steam engines.

  C.Waterpower was used to generate electricity.

  D.Waterwheels became more efficient than coal-powered engines.

  8.這段第一句就指出了電力發展，然后又說水利能源的重大改變促進了電力發展。因此符合C選項。

  9.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in thehighlighted sentence in the passage paragraph 5? Incorrect choices change themeaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

  A.The growth of the electric-power industry stimulated significant changes in hydro technologyand scientific progress in electrotechnology in the nineteenth century.

  B.The changes in hydro technology that led to the growth of the electric-power industry also ledto discoveries and developments in electrotechnology in the nineteenth century.

  C.Advances in electrotechnology in the nineteenth century and changes in hydro technologywere responsible for the growth of the electric-power industry.

  D.In the nineteenth century, the scientific study of electrotechnology and hydro technologybenefited greatly from the growth of the electric-power industry.

  9.原文句子的邏輯關系是，electrotechnology和 changes in water growth 共同促進了electric power 工業。A邏輯關系完全反了。B混亂的。D與A邏輯相似。因此選擇C。

  10.The word "unaltered" in the passage is closest in meaning to

  A.unimproved.

  B.unequaled.

  C.unchanged.

  D.unsatisfactory.

  10.Unaltered是一成不變的，這道題A是一個迷惑選項。但是unaltered并沒有進步，改良的那層意思。因此C更合適。

  11.The discussion of the history of electric power production in paragraph 6 supportswhich of the following?

  A.1832 marked the beginning of the industrial production of electric power.

  B.Turbines using Benoit Fourneyron's design were eventually used to generate electric power.

  C.Benoit Fourneyron quickly applied Michael Faraday's discovery about electric fields to acquirea pattern for a new and more efficient waterwheel.

  D.Practical advances in hydro technology were more important to the development of electricpower than were advances in the theoretical understanding of electricity.

  11.上一段說Benoit Fourneyron的發現通過發明turbine得以應用。通過turbine就可以實現發電了。

  12.According to paragraph 7, what problem did the early power station in the town ofGodalming in Surrey, United Kingdom, face in providing electricity?

  A.The traditional waterwheel is used was not large enough to meet the demand for energy.

  B.The flow of the River Wey, on which the power station depended, was unreliable.

  C.The operators of the Godalming power station had little experience with hydro technology.

  D.The steam engine that turned the waterwheel was faulty and needed to be replaced.

  12.通過Godalming定位。往后閱讀之后出現了unfortunately的轉折，也就是要說遇到的問題了。"："后面就是答案了。所以選B。

  13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could beadded to the passage.Where would the sentence best fit? The steam engine thatturned the waterwheel was faulty and needed to be replaced.

  Raising water and grinding corn were by no means the only uses of the waterpower mill, andduring the following centuries, the applications of waterpower kept pace with the developingtechnologies of mining,iron working,paper making,and the wool and cotton industries. Waterwas the main source of mechanical power, and by the end of the seventeenth century,England alone is thought to have had some 20,000 working mill. There was much debate onthe relative efficiencies of different types of waterwheels. ■【A】The period from about 1650until 1800 saw some excellent scientific and technical investigations of different designs. ■【B】They revealed output powers ranging from about 1 horsepower to perhaps 60 for thelargest wheels and confirmed that for maximum efficiency,the water should pass across theblades as smoothly as possible and fall away with minimum speed, having given up almost allof its kinetic energy. ■【C】(They also proved that, in principle, the overshot wheel, a typeof wheel in which anoverhead stream of water powers the wheel, should win the efficiencycompetition.) ■【D】

  13.要插入的句子說要resolve disagreement。而這段的第一句就說很多debate。那么插到第一個空里正合適。

  14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage isprovided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices thatexpress the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong inthe summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or areminor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.

  Ever since the development of waterwheel, which occurred no later than 500 B.C.,people have used moving water as a source of power.

  A.The first water-powered machines were probably used to grind corn, and as technologyadvanced, waterwheels were used as the main source of power in many industries.

  B.In the late nineteenth century an electric power station in England began using water powerfrom a nearby river, creating a dependable source of power that quickly replaced the steamengine.

  C.In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, design improvements I waterwheels led todiscoveries of how to increase their efficiency and power output.

  D.Almost every large town in England had a waterpower mill, allowing England to become theworld's leader in industries that depended on water for their power.

  E.Waterpower mills were probably invented about the same time in the Middle East andScandinavia and then spread to England by about the second century B.C..

  F.After declining in importance in the early 1800's, waterpower came back into demand by theend of the century as a means to power electric plants and water turbines.

  14.A正確，對應原文第二段第一句。B錯誤。原文說英國的居住點不管大小，都有自己的mill。對應原文第二段最后一句。C錯誤。原文說的是river的水流不穩定，結果很快被steam engine取代了。對應原文倒數第二段最后兩句。D錯誤，對應原文第一段，原文說沒人知道water mill是什么時候發明的。而且后半句時間也不對。E正確，對應原文第四段。F對應原文第五段最后一句，和第六段。

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