上海新航道托福小編為托福考生們準(zhǔn)備了托福閱讀TPO30原文譯文+答案,希望各位考生們在TPO真題里能夠得到鍛煉，祝廣大托福考生能夠取得理想成績。

  Role of Play in Development

  Play is easier to define with examples than withconcepts. In any case, in animals it consists ofleaping, running, climbing, throwing, wrestling, andother movements, either along, with objects, or withother animals. Depending on the species, play may be primarily for social interaction,exercise, or exploration. One of the problems in providing a clear definition of play is that itinvolves the same behaviors that take place in other circumstance—dominance, predation,competition, and real fighting. Thus, whether play occurs or not depends on the intention ofthe animals, and the intentions are not always clear from behaviors alone.

  用例證來定義玩耍要比用概念簡單得多。在任何情況下，動物間的玩耍都包括跳躍，奔跑，攀登，投擲，格斗和另外的一些動作，而玩耍的對象可能有其它物品或者動物。根據(jù)物種的不同，玩耍的目的主要包括社交，鍛煉，或探索。定義“玩耍”的難點之一是，玩耍過程中常常包含一些與其它情況下相似的行為，例如統(tǒng)治，捕食，競爭和搏斗。因此，判斷其是否玩耍，要根據(jù)動物的目的來確認(rèn)，而常常通過行為本身很難分析其目的。

  Play appears to be a developmental characteristic of animals with fairly sophisticatednervous systems, mainly birds and mammals. Play has been studied most extensively inprimates and canids (dogs). Exactly why animals play is still a matter debated in the researchliterature, and the reasons may not be the same for every species that plays. Determining thefunctions of play is difficult because the functions may be long-term, with beneficial effects notshowing up until the animal's adulthood.

  玩耍似乎是那些有著相對復(fù)雜的神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)的動物，主要是鳥類和哺乳動物，的一個發(fā)育，發(fā)展的特征。玩耍的大量研究主要在靈長類和犬類中進(jìn)行。動物到底為什么要玩耍仍然在文獻(xiàn)中存在爭議，并且每種物種玩耍的原因也不盡相同。確定玩耍的功能很難，因為它的功能是長期的，伴隨著一些直到動物成年才會顯現(xiàn)出來的有利影響。

  Play is not without considerable costs to the individual animal. Play is usually very active,involving movement in space and, at times, noisemaking. Therefore, it results in the loss offuel or energy that might better be used for growth or for building up fat stores in a younganimal. Another potential cost of this activity is greater exposure to predators since play isattention-getting behavior. Great activities also increase the risk of injury in slipping or falling.

  玩耍對于動物個體并非沒有一定的代價。玩耍通常是非常活躍的，包括一些動作，有時也會發(fā)出聲音。所以，這些都會導(dǎo)致一些年幼的動物的本來可以用來生長或者儲存脂肪的能量流失。另一個潛在的代價是玩耍增加了動物暴漏給天敵的幾率，因為這些多動是吸引注意的行為。大量的運(yùn)動也會增加摔倒滑倒導(dǎo)致受傷的危險。

  The benefits of play must outweigh costs, or play would not have evolved, according toDarwin' s theory. Some of the potential benefits relate directly to the healthy development ofthe brain and nervous system. In one research study, two groups of young rats were raisedunder different conditions. One group developed in an "enriched" environment, which allowedthe rats to interact with other rats, play with toys, and receive maze training. The other grouplived in an "impoverished" environment in individual cages in a dimly lit room with littlestimulation. At the end of the experiments, the results showed that the actual weight of thebrains of the impoverished rats was less than that of those raised in the enriched environment(though they were fed the same diets). Other studies have shown that greater stimulation notonly affects the size of the brain but also increase the number of connections between the nervecells. Thus, active play may provide necessary stimulation to the growth of synapticconnections in the brain, especially the cerebellum, which is responsible for motor functioningand movements.

  根據(jù)達(dá)爾文理論，玩耍的好處一定超過其損失，不然玩耍就不會得以進(jìn)化。其中一些潛在的好處就是直接關(guān)于動物的大腦和神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)的健康發(fā)展。在一項研究中，兩組小鼠被養(yǎng)在不同的環(huán)境中。第一組成長在一個比較“富裕”的環(huán)境中，這樣的環(huán)境使其可以與其他老鼠接觸，和玩具玩兒，并且接受迷宮訓(xùn)練。另一組生活在“窮困”的環(huán)境中，它們被養(yǎng)在獨(dú)立籠子里，只有微弱的光照和極少的刺激。最后，結(jié)果表明生活在單一環(huán)境中的老鼠的大腦重量要比生活在復(fù)雜情況下的老鼠的大腦輕(即使它們被喂養(yǎng)的食物一樣的)。另外一些研究表明，較大的刺激不僅會影響大腦的大小，而且也會增加神經(jīng)細(xì)胞間連接的數(shù)量。因此，活躍的玩耍可以為大腦中的突觸連接提供必要的刺激，特別是負(fù)責(zé)運(yùn)動機(jī)能的小腦。

  Play also stimulates the development of the muscle tissues themselves and may providethe opportunities to practice those movements needed for survival. Prey species, like youngdeer or goats, for example, typically play by performing sudden flight movements and turns,whereas predator species, such as cats, practice stalking, pouncing, and biting.

  玩耍也會刺激肌肉組織的生長，并能提供練習(xí)生存技能的機(jī)會。被捕食者，比如小鹿或者山羊，其典型的玩耍動作就是突然快速跳躍和轉(zhuǎn)彎，相反捕食者，比如貓科動物，則練習(xí)潛行追蹤，猛撲和撕咬。

  Play allows a young animal to explore its environment and practice skill in comparativesafety since the surrounding adults generally do not expect the young to deal with threats orpredators. Play can also provide practice in social behaviors needed for courtship and mating.Learning appropriate social behaviors is especially important for species that live in groups,like young monkeys that needed to learn to control selfishness and aggression and tounderstand the give-and-take involved in social groups. They need to learn how to bedominant and submissive because each monkey might have to play either role in the future.Most of these things are learned in the long developmental periods that primates have, duringwhich they engage in countless play experiences with their peers.

  玩耍有助于幼年動物探索其生存環(huán)境，并且由于周圍的成年動物一般不期望孩子去處理威脅和捕食者，所以它們可以在相對安全的環(huán)境中練習(xí)技能。玩耍也可以練習(xí)求愛和交配的社交行為。學(xué)習(xí)適當(dāng)?shù)纳缃恍袨樘貏e重要，尤其是對于群居動物，比如猴子，它們需要學(xué)會控制自己的自私和攻擊性，學(xué)著去懂得付出和收獲的關(guān)系以融入群體。它們要學(xué)習(xí)怎么去統(tǒng)治和順從因為每只猴子都會在將來扮演其中某個角色。大部分這類事情都在靈長類的長期的幼齡時期學(xué)習(xí)，期間它們有數(shù)不清的玩耍經(jīng)驗。

  There is a danger, of course, that play may be misinterpreted or not recognized as play byothers, potentially leading to aggression. This is especially true when play consists ofpracticing normal aggressive or predator behaviors. Thus, many species have evolved clearsignals to delineate playfulness. Dogs, for example, will wag their tails, get down their frontlegs, and stick their behinds in the air to indicate "what follows is just for play."

  當(dāng)然玩耍也有危險。玩耍可能會被別的動物誤會，或者不被當(dāng)做玩耍而潛在地造成攻擊。這個情況尤其在扮演練習(xí)正常的侵略性或捕食行為過程中。因此，許多物種都有其明確的表明玩耍的信號。比如狗，它們用會搖尾巴，前腿趴下，撅著屁股來表示“以下行為都是逗你玩兒的!”

  托福閱讀試題

  1.According to paragraph 1, why is playdifficult to define?

  A.Play must be defined with concepts, not examples.

  B.Play behavior often looks like nonplay behavior.

  C.Play often occurs in the presence of animals that are not playing.

  D.Play occurs independently of an animal's intentions.

  1.原文中，同樣的behavior會同時發(fā)生在play和其他一些非play的情況中，所以B正確。A與原文第一句矛盾。C選項沒有提到。D選項與原文第一段最后一句矛盾。

  2.According to paragraph 2, which of the following presents a particular challenge toresearchers who study play behavior in animals

  A.The delay between activities and the benefits the animal derives from them.

  B.The difficulty in determining which animal species play and which do not.

  C.The fact that for most animals, there is no clear transition from youth to full adulthood.

  D.The lack of research on the play behavior of animals other than canids and primates.

  2.看第二段的最后兩句。倒數(shù)第二句說動物玩耍的原因仍然在被debating，后面說確定玩耍的作用(function)非常難，那也就對應(yīng)了原題的challenge。Because后面出現(xiàn)了原因，說這些function是長期的，其beneficial要到動物成年才出現(xiàn)。所以跟A選項吻痕。B、C選項原文沒提到。D選項也和問題無關(guān)。

  3.The word "considerable" in the passage paragraph 3 is closest in the meaning to

  A.Initial.

  B.Practical.

  C.Eventually.

  D.Significant.

  3.Considerable：重要的，值得考慮的。選項A是最初的，B是實用的，C是最終的，D是重大的，有意義的。所以D符合，另外后文提到了各種cost和loss。所以可以理解considerable cost可以理解為一定量的損失或者風(fēng)險。

  4.According to paragraph 3, each of the following is a cost to animals that engage inplay EXCEPT

  A.exposure to predators.

  B.a buildup of fat stores.

  C.a loss of fuel that could be used for growth.

  D.risk of injury from slipping or falling.

  4.從Therefore開始后面的都是potential cost。三種cost已經(jīng)用紅色字體標(biāo)出。B選項看似提到了，但是原文是說失去了fat store的機(jī)會，而不是因為play而build up了。所以B錯。

  5.Why does the author include the comment "though they were fed the same diets"?

  A.To show why rats living in impoverished environments need less food than those living inenriched environments.

  B.To eliminate the possibility that differences in diet were responsibly for observed differencesin brain weight.

  C.To emphasize the point that rats were fed only the amount of food needed to keep themalive.

  D.To suggest that rats fed the same diet have smaller brains than those fed a varied food.

  5.這里提到的試驗的結(jié)果。前面從in one research of study開始描述這個試驗，提到了兩個對比組，underdifferent conditions。后面是在說結(jié)果，括號里面的內(nèi)容是對結(jié)論的解釋說明。A,C,D三個選項一點兒都不沾邊。只要高中學(xué)過一點數(shù)理化就知道這個是控制變量的試驗，所以答案選B。

  6.Paragraph 4 supports which of the following statements about an animal's brain.

  A.The heavier the brain, the richer the environment in which the animal was raised.

  B.The younger the animal, the harder it is to develop new connections between nerve cells.

  C.The larger the animal, the harder it is to develop new connections between nerve cells.

  D.The larger the animal's cerebellum, the larger will be the animal's nerve cells.

  6.原文中從other studies 開始有描述了另外的觀點。說greater stimulation不僅會影響大腦的大小，也會增加神經(jīng)細(xì)胞間的連接的數(shù)量，而這個stimulation是由active play提供的。根據(jù)上文，環(huán)境越復(fù)雜，activeplay就越多，因此stimulation就越多，導(dǎo)致動物的大腦更大，也就更重。所以A選項符合這個觀點。BCD都沒提到。

  7.According to paragraph 5, why might play behavior of prey species be differentfrom those of predator species?

  A.Unlike predator species, prey species use play to prevent inappropriate socialbehaviors, such as biting.

  B.Some prey species are physically incapable of certain types of predator movements.

  C.The survival of each species type is linked to particular sets of muscular movements.

  D.Predator species have more opportunities to practice play behaviors than prey species.

  7.這道題的關(guān)鍵詞在于needed for survival。因為prey species和predator species對于survival的要求不同，所以導(dǎo)致他們play behavior也不同。所以選C。 A，B，D原文都沒提到。

  8.The word "comparative" in the passage paragraph 6 is closest in meaning to

  A.relative.

  B.temporary.

  C.sufficient.

  D.complete.

  8.comparative是相對的，相當(dāng)?shù)摹是相對的;B是暫時的;C是充足的;D是完成的。所以選擇A。這里C可能會是迷惑選項，因為其意思帶入原文也通順，但是失去了原詞的"比較"的那層意思。

  9.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information inthehighlighted sentence in the passage paragraph 6 ? Incorrect choices change themeaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

  A.Only monkeys that have learned to control their selfish and aggressive behaviors can beinvolved in social groups.

  B.Selfish and aggressive animals like monkeys live in groups in order to practice appropriatesocial behaviors.

  C.Monkeys and other social animals need to learn behaviors appropriate for their socialgroups.

  D.Some monkeys are naturally too selfish and aggressive to understand the give-and-take ofsocial groups, so they learn such important behaviors while young.

  9.這道題中的原句主干是learning social behavior is important，特別是對于群居的動物。然后用了monkey做例證。A選項只提到了monkeys要控制自己才能融入群體，但沒提到主干部分。 B選項說自私和攻擊性強(qiáng)的動物藥學(xué)social behavior，這就把其他動物排除在外了，改變了原句的意思。C正確，不僅提到了monkey也說到了其他的social animals(which means species that live in groups)為了融入群體要學(xué)social behavior。 D是錯誤選項，原文并沒說猴子太自私以至于不能理解give and take…與原文矛盾，不選。

  10.What can be inferred from paragraph 6 about the role of adults in play activities ofthe young?

  A.Adults help their young learn to become dominant within the social group.

  B.Young animals learn how to play from the adults within their social group.

  C.Adults allow the young to engage in play behaviors within a protected, sage environment.

  D.The long developmental period of some animals allows adults more time to teach their younghow to deal with the threats of predators.

  10.根據(jù)young & adult定位到第六段第一句。說成年動物要讓年輕的動物在相對安全的環(huán)境下玩兒。 因此可以得到答案C正確。A原文沒有說讓young去學(xué)怎么dominant，B原文雖然提到social group 但沒提到是從adults身上學(xué)習(xí)。D原文完全沒有相關(guān)描寫。

  11.The word "potentially" in the passage paragraph 7 is closest in meaning to

  A.undoubtedly.

  B.possibly.

  C.unfortunately.

  D.quickly.

  11.potentially潛在地。A市毫無疑問地; B是可能地;C是不幸地;D是快速地。前半句中有May be，表達(dá)了一中可能性，后半句沒有轉(zhuǎn)折，應(yīng)該是接上上半句往下說的。所以意思應(yīng)該想近。

  12.According to paragraph 7, how do some animals ensure that other animalsunderstand that they are just playing?

  A.By playing only with animals who are not predator.

  B.By avoiding any aspects of the play behavior that are dangerous.

  C.By practicing non-aggressive and non-predatory behaviors.

  D.By using a set of signals that occurs only in play.

  12.這一段前半部分一直在描述說有動物之間會誤以為是真的aggression，中間出現(xiàn)了thus證明后面會說解決的方法。這里說解決方法是用clear signals 去表達(dá)playfulness。所以答案是D。

  13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence can beadded to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit? With messages such asthose, even dogs that are strangers to each other can be playing within a fewminutes.

  There is a danger, of course, that play may be misinterpreted or not recognized as play byothers, potentially leading to aggression. ■【A】This is especially true when play consists ofpracticing normal aggressive or predator behaviors. ■【B】Thus,many species have evolvedclear signals to delineate playfulness. ■【C】Dogs, forexample, will wag their tails, get downtheir front legs, and stick their behinds in the air to indicate "what follows is just for play." ■【D】

  13.要插入的句子開頭為With message such as those，那么說明前面肯定會描述一些messages，后面又說even dogs，那證明前面應(yīng)該也提到了狗的行為。所以這里應(yīng)該插在最后一個空里。

  14. Directions: an introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage isprovided below. Complete the summary be selecting the THREE answer choices thatexpress the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong inthe summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or areminor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.

  Play appears to be a developmental characteristic of animals with fairly sophisticated nervoussystems, mainly birds and mammals.

  A.Although play often resembles aggression, flight, or other purposeful activities, researchersdo not degree on the reasons for and functions of play

  B.Although many animals develop physically from play, too many young animals becomevictims of their natural predators while playing.

  C.Animals such as rats, dogs, deer, goats and monkeys learn how to be both dominant andsubmissive during play activities so that they will fit in better with their adult social groups.

  D.The function of play is still debated in the research literature primarily because each animalspecies uses so few of the many available types of play behavior.

  E.Energy expenditure and security risks are some of the costs to animals of play behavior, butthe costs are not so great that they outweigh the long-term benefits of play to the species.

  F.As experiments and observations have shown, animals that play at some stages of theirdevelopment obtain neurological, muscular, or social benefits from the play behaviors.

  14.選項A對應(yīng)在原文第一段，提到play的行為包括了running，climbing，fighting等等aggression的行為，但是很難確定其function所以A正確。E對應(yīng)原文第三段，potential cost提到了loss ofenergy，security risks等等，但是第一段也提到說play是long-term beneficial的，第四段開頭說好處一定會outweigh其costs。B這個原文沒有提到，雖然第三段提到了potential cost，后面也說adults通常會讓young在相對安全的情況下play，但并沒有說太多太多的小動物變成了victims。不選。C這個原文雖然說他們要學(xué)social behavior，但沒提到說這類動物要學(xué)著去dominant，不選。D選項對應(yīng)原文第一段，但選項中的原因和原文不符，不選。E對應(yīng)原文第三段，potential cost提到了loss of energy，security risks等等，但是第一段也提到說play是long-term beneficial的，第四段開頭說好處一定會outweigh其costs。F選項對應(yīng)原文第四，五段。第四段說play會影響大腦發(fā)育，神經(jīng)細(xì)胞間連接的數(shù)量。第五段說到了有益于muscletissue的發(fā)育。后文第六段也提到了social Benefits。

 The Pace of Evolutionary Change

  A heated debate has enlivened recent studiesof evolution. Darwin's original thesis, and theviewpoint supported by evolutionary gradualists, isthat species change continuously but slowly and insmall increments. Such changes are all but invisible over the short time scale of modernobservations, and, it is argued, they are usually obscured by innumerable gaps in theimperfect fossil record. Gradualism, with its stress on the slow pace of change, is a comfortingposition, repeated over and over again in generations of textbooks. By the early twentiethcentury, the question about the rate of evolution had been answered in favor of gradualism tomost biologists' satisfaction.

  最近的一個關(guān)于進(jìn)化的研究引發(fā)了激烈的爭論。達(dá)爾文的原始論點和進(jìn)化漸進(jìn)主義者支持的觀點是物種會持續(xù)地改變，但非常緩慢，增量也很小。這種改變是普遍的，但是現(xiàn)在短時間的觀察是不能察覺的，并且，這個觀點聲稱，它們通常被掩蓋于不完美的化石記錄的不可計數(shù)的缺失中。漸進(jìn)主義及其對物種緩慢變化的引力讓人欣然接受，并在世代的教科書中重復(fù)出現(xiàn)。在20世紀(jì)早前之前，令大部分的生物學(xué)家滿足于利用漸進(jìn)主義來回答關(guān)于進(jìn)化速率的問題。

  Sometimes a closed question must be reopened as new evidence or new arguments basedon old evidence come to light. In 1972 paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould and Niles Eldredgechallenged conventional wisdom with an opposing viewpoint, the punctuated equilibriumhypothesis, which posits that species give rise to new species in relatively sudden bursts,without a lengthy transition period. These episodes of rapid evolution are separated byrelatively long static spans during which a species may hardly change at all.

  有時，已經(jīng)有了結(jié)論的問題必須由在已有證據(jù)基礎(chǔ)上出現(xiàn)的新的證據(jù)和新的論點使其重新展開討論。在1972年，古生物學(xué)者Stephen Jay Gould和 Niles Eldredge用相反的論點挑戰(zhàn)了世俗的結(jié)論，即斷點平衡說，它假設(shè)了物種演變?yōu)樾碌奈锓N是通過相對突然的爆發(fā)，并非通過長時間的過渡時期。迅速的進(jìn)化期被時間相對更長的靜態(tài)期分開，而在靜態(tài)時期，物種是幾乎完全不變的。

  The punctuated equilibrium hypothesis attempts to explain a curious feature of thefossil record—one that has been familiar to paleontologist for more than a century but hasusually been ignored. Many species appear to remain unchanged in the fossil record for millionsof years—a situation that seems to be at odds with Darwin's model of continuous change.Intermediated fossil forms, predicted by gradualism, are typically lacking. In most localities agiven species of clam or coral persists essentially unchanged throughout a thick formationof rock, only to be replaced suddenly by a new and different species.

  斷點平衡論試著去解釋化石記錄的一個古怪的特點----在超過一個世紀(jì)的時間里它已經(jīng)為古生物學(xué)者所熟悉，但一直被忽視。許多物種似乎在上百萬年的化石記錄中一直沒有改變，這個情況與達(dá)爾文的模型所支持的物種的持續(xù)變化相悖。進(jìn)化漸進(jìn)論的支持者所預(yù)測的中間狀態(tài)的化石一直沒有出現(xiàn)。在大部分蛤和珊瑚的聚集地，其化石在很厚的巖石中都實際上沒有變化，只是突然被另一新的并且不同的物種而取代。

  The evolution of North American horse, which was once presented as a classic textbookexample of gradual evolution, is now providing equally compelling evidence for punctuatedequilibrium. A convincing 50-million-year sequence of modern horse ancestors—eachslightly larger, with more complex teeth, a longer face, and a more prominent central toe—seemed to provide strong support for Darwin's contention that species evolve gradually.But close examination of those fossil deposits now reveals a somewhat different story. Horsesevolved in discrete steps, each of which persisted almost unchanged for millions of years andwas eventually replaced by a distinctive newer model. The four-toed Eohippus preceded thethree-toed Miohippus, for example, but North American fossil evidence suggests a jerky,uneven transition between the two. If evolution had been a continuous, gradual process,one might expect that almost every fossil specimen would be slightly different from every year.

  北美馬的進(jìn)化曾經(jīng)被用作經(jīng)典的教科書案例來證明漸變進(jìn)化論，現(xiàn)在卻為斷點平衡學(xué)提供了同樣有說服力的證據(jù)。一個有說服力的5千萬年的馬祖先的進(jìn)化模型----每一代都稍稍大一點，有更復(fù)雜的牙齒，更長的臉，和中間更突出的腳趾----這一切都看似強(qiáng)有力的支持了達(dá)爾文的論點，物種是逐步地進(jìn)化的。但是，對這些化石更嚴(yán)謹(jǐn)?shù)尿炞C現(xiàn)在揭示了一個不太一樣的故事。馬是在不連續(xù)的步驟中進(jìn)化的，其中每個進(jìn)化步驟中間都有上百萬年時間保持不變，在最后被一個不同的更新的模型取代。比如四只腳趾的Eohippus 在三只腳趾的moihippus之前，但北美化石證據(jù)表明在這之間有一個不平穩(wěn)的，不均衡的轉(zhuǎn)換過程。如果進(jìn)化一直都是連續(xù)，漸進(jìn)的過程，人們應(yīng)該預(yù)期到的是每年的化石樣本都會存在細(xì)微的差別。

  If it seems difficult to conceive how major changes could occur rapidly, consider this: analteration of a single gene in files is enough to turn a normal fly with a single pair of wings intoone that has two pairs of wings.

  如果很難設(shè)想大的改變會迅速發(fā)生，想想這些：一個單一基因的改變就足以將有一對翅膀的蒼蠅變成兩對翅膀。

  The question about the rate of evolution must now be turned around: does evolutionever proceed gradually, or does it always occur in short bursts? Detailed field studies of thickrock formations containing fossils provide the best potential tests of the competing theories.

  關(guān)于進(jìn)化速度的問題現(xiàn)在發(fā)生了轉(zhuǎn)變：進(jìn)化過程是逐漸發(fā)生的么，還是總是突然短時間的爆發(fā)?對含有化石的厚巖層的細(xì)致的現(xiàn)場調(diào)查可以檢驗這兩個備受爭論的理論。

  Occasionally, a sequence of fossil-rich layers of rock permits a comprehensive look atone type of organism over a long period of time. For example, Peter Sheldon's studies oftrilobites, a now extinct marine animal with a segmented body, offer a detailed glimpse intothree million years of evolution in one marine environment. In that study, each of eightdifferent trilobite species was observed to undergo a gradual change in the number ofsegments—typically an increase of one or two segments over the whole time interval. Nosignificant discontinuous were observed, leading Sheldon to conclude that environmentalconditions were quite stable during the period he examined.

  偶爾，有一個系列的化石豐富的巖石可以允許人們綜合性的觀察一種生物在很長一段時間中的變化。比如，Peter Sheldon對于三葉蟲，一種已滅絕的身體分節(jié)的海洋生物，的研究提供了其對三百萬年來在同一海洋環(huán)境下進(jìn)化的一些細(xì)節(jié)。研究中，八種三葉蟲都觀察到了其身體節(jié)數(shù)數(shù)量逐漸改變的過程，在整個時間段中，一般身體都增加了一到兩節(jié)。沒有明顯的不連貫，這使sheldon得出結(jié)論：海洋環(huán)境在那段時間是比較穩(wěn)定的。

  Similar exhaustive studies are required for many different kinds of organisms from manydifferent periods. Most researchers expect to find that both modes of transition from onespecies to another are at work in evolution. Slow, continuous change may be the normduring periods of environmental stability, while rapid evolution of new species occurs duringperiods of environment stress. But a lot more studies like Sheldon's are needed before we cansay for sure.

  很多來自不同時期的不同的生物都需要開展相似的相近研究。大多數(shù)研究者希望發(fā)現(xiàn)物種進(jìn)化的這兩種模式都存在。緩慢的，連續(xù)的變化可能是在環(huán)境穩(wěn)定的時間段下的規(guī)律，而快速進(jìn)化的新物種則發(fā)生在環(huán)境變化時期的壓力下。但是，我們需要更多的想Sheldon所做的研究以證明這個觀點。

  托福閱讀試題

  1.The word "innumerable" in the passage isclosest in the meaning to

  A.countless.

  B.occasional.

  C.large.

  D.repeated.

  1.innumerable是不可計數(shù)的，A是無數(shù)的，B是偶然的，C是大的，D是重復(fù)的。這個單詞是numerable加否定前綴，很容易就能推出意思來。

  2.According to paragraph 1, all of the following are true EXCEPT

  A.Darwin saw evolutionary change as happening slowly and gradually.

  B.Gaps in the fossil record were used to explain why it is difficult to see continuous smallchanges in the evolution of species.

  C.Darwin's evolutionary thesis was rejected because small changes could not be observed inthe evolutionary record.

  D.By the early twentieth century, most biologists believed that gradualism explainedevolutionary change.

  2.A答案對應(yīng)第一段第二句， B對應(yīng)第一段第三句，D對應(yīng)一段最后一句。C與原文沖突，原文一直在說darwin理論被人們廣泛接受。

  3.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in thehighlighted sentence in the passage paragraph 2 ? Incorrect choices change themeaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

  A.The punctuated equilibrium hypothesis challenged gradualism, which holds that speciesevolve in relatively sudden bursts of brief duration.

  B.The punctuated equilibrium hypothesis developed by Stephen Jay Gould and NilesEldredge was challenged in 1972.C.In 1972 Stephen Jay Gould and Niles Eldredge challengedgradualism by positing that change from one species to another cannot occur without alengthy transition period.

  D.The punctuate equilibrium hypothesis, in opposition to gradualism, holds that transitionsfrom one species to another occur in comparatively sudden burst.

  3.高亮句子的主干部分是斷點平衡論挑戰(zhàn)了原來的漸進(jìn)論，然后解釋了斷點平衡論的內(nèi)容。A選項which修飾不明，容易產(chǎn)生誤解;B選項與原文矛盾，C與原文不符，原文S和N的觀點是change的發(fā)生是withoutlengthy transition的。D和原文意思相符，并且也包含了所有的主干部分。

  4.According to paragraph 1 and paragraph 2, the punctuated equilibrium hypothesisand the gradualism hypothesis differed about

  A.Whether the fossil record is complete.

  B.Whether all species undergo change.

  C.Whether evolution proceeds an a constant rate.

  D.How many new species occur over long periods of time.

  4.根據(jù)原文，漸進(jìn)論是說物種演變是通過長時間的緩慢改變發(fā)生的;斷點平衡論是說物種演變是短期爆發(fā)的。所以選擇C，進(jìn)化是否是勻速發(fā)生的。

  5.According to paragraph 3, the lack of intermediate fossils in the fossil record ofsome species

  A.has been extensively studied by paleontologist for over a century.

  B.contradicts the idea that most species have remained unchanged for millions of years.

  C.challenges the view that evolutionary change is gradual.

  D.is most common in the fossil records of clam and coral species.

  5.根據(jù)lack of intermediate fossils定位到第三段倒數(shù)第二句，在往前看一句說，這一情況對于達(dá)爾文學(xué)說是不和的，而達(dá)爾文學(xué)說正是漸進(jìn)論，這一段的最后也說原來的物種突然被替換，而不是漸漸進(jìn)化改變的。所以C符合原文意思。 A與原文第一句破折號后矛盾，原文說這一現(xiàn)象一直被Ignored，B選項原文矛盾，該現(xiàn)象應(yīng)該是反對了達(dá)爾文學(xué)說，支持了物種有長期不改變的論點。D雖然正確但是只是本段的細(xì)節(jié)，不能表達(dá)主題，所以不選。

  6.The word "compelling" in the passage paragraph 4 is closest in the meaning to

  A.surprising.

  B.persuasive.

  C.controversial.

  D.detailed.

  6.Compel本身是強(qiáng)迫，此處作為evidence的形容詞可以延伸為說服力強(qiáng)的。因此答案選B 有說服力的。A是驚奇的，C是有爭議的，D是細(xì)節(jié)的。都不沾邊。另外通過句義可以判斷，前文說馬的進(jìn)化was once 是經(jīng)典的漸進(jìn)論的證明，is now(輕微轉(zhuǎn)折)提了"equally"怎么樣的證據(jù)證明了點斷平衡論，前文既然說對gradualevolution很支持，那么后文出現(xiàn)equally，那應(yīng)該對點斷論也是有力證據(jù)。因此選B。

  7.Paragraph 4 mentions that North American horses have changed in all the followingways EXCEPT in

  A.the number of toes they have.

  B.the length of their face.

  C.their overall size.

  D.the number of years they live.

  7.對應(yīng)部分在第四段的第二句和第五句，只有D選項沒有出現(xiàn)。

  8.The word "alteration" in the passage paragraph 5 is closest in meaning to

  A.imperfection.

  B.replacement.

  C.change.

  D.duplication.

  8.這一句話說一個怎么樣的單一基因就足以變一個普通飛禽的一對的正常翅為兩對翅膀，所以有推理應(yīng)該是要改變這個基因。所以選C，Alteration是修改，變更，A選項是不完美，B是替換，D是復(fù)制 帶入后都改變了原文的意思。

  9.According to paragraph 7, Peter Sheldon's studies demonstrated which ofthefollowing about trilobites?

  A.They underwent gradual change over a long time period.

  B.They experienced a number of discontinuous transitions during their history.

  C.They remained unchanged during a long period of environmental stability.

  D.They evolved in ways that cannot be counted for by either of the two competing theories.

  9.根據(jù)Peter Sheldon定位到原文第二句。后面對trilobites進(jìn)行了描述，A選項對應(yīng)了原文第三句，后文又繼續(xù)說沒有明顯的斷點。所以A正確。 B與原文第四句沖突。C與第三句沖突，D原文沒有這種說法。而且上文也表明它符合gradual evolvement。

  10.The word "occasionally" in the passage paragraph 7 is closest in meaning to

  A.undoubtedly.

  B.basically.

  C.once in a while.

  D.to some extent.

  10.occasionally，是偶然偶爾的意思。A是毫無疑問的，B是基本上，C是偶爾有一次。D是在一定程度上。因此應(yīng)該選C。并且上文提出問題說是否有過逐漸進(jìn)化?那么下文給的是一個逐漸進(jìn)化的例子，所以應(yīng)該是在表達(dá)偶爾有一兩個的意思。

  11.The main purpose of paragraph 7 is to

  A.Describe one test of the competing theories.

  B.Provide an example of punctuated equilibrium.

  C.Describe how segmented animals evidence both competing theories.

  D.Explain why trilobites became extinct.

  11.上文說實地勘測會給competing theories提供test，第七段就給了試驗例子，那么就證明是A正確。B與原文沖突，這個例子是支持漸進(jìn)論的。C也不對，理由同上。D與原文目的不符。

  12. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence can beadded to the passage.Where could the sentence best fit? They believe thatenvironmental conditions may play a crucial role in determining which of the twomodes will be in operation over a given period.

  ■【A】Similar exhaustive studies are required for many different kinds of organisms frommany different periods. ■【B】Most researchers expect to find that both modes of transitionfrom one species to another are at work in evolution.■【C】Slow, continuous change may bethe norm during periods of environmental stability, while rapid evolution of new speciesoccurs during periods of environment stress. ■【D】But a lot more studies like Sheldon's areneeded before we can say for sure.

  12.首先句子開頭出現(xiàn)了They，那么我們應(yīng)該能在前文找到一個提到人物的地方，句子又提出environmentalcondition的作用，那么后文應(yīng)該會出現(xiàn)對這一理論的解釋，那么C是符合的，也可以進(jìn)行代入驗證。

  13.Directions: selected from the seven phrases below the phrases that correctlycharacterize punctuated equilibrium and the phrases that correctly characterizegradualism. Two of the phrases will not be used. This question is worth 3 points.

  A.States that new species emerge from existing species during relatively brief period of time.

  B.Was first formulated by Charles Darwin.

  C.Explain why North American horses have become smaller over time.

  D.States that new species evolve slowly and continuously from existing species.

  E.Explain the lack of intermediate fossil forms in the fossil record of many species.

  F.Competition is usually strongest when the density of the competing populations is the same.

  G.States that a species will not change unless its environment changes.

  1 )

  Gradualism

  A B C D E F G

  2 )

  punctuated equilibrium

  A B C D E F G

  13.A斷點平衡論論點為物種變化發(fā)生突然，快速，符合。B對應(yīng)文章第一段第一句話，符合漸進(jìn)論。C與原文第四段第二句矛盾，原文說馬進(jìn)化會變大。不選。D原文第一段第一句，符合漸進(jìn)論。E對應(yīng)原文第三段。符合點斷平衡論。F原文沒提到，不選。G原文最后一段，說漸進(jìn)論應(yīng)該會是環(huán)境比較穩(wěn)定的情況下的進(jìn)化規(guī)則。符合漸進(jìn)論。

  The Invention of the Mechanical Clock

  In Europe, before the introduction of themechanical clock, people told time by sun (using,for example, shadow sticks or sun dials) and waterclocks. Sun clocks worked, of course, only on cleardays; water clocks misbehaved when the temperature fell toward freezing, to say nothing oflong-run drift as the result of sedimentation and clogging. Both these devices worked well insunny climates; but in northern Europe the sun may be hidden by clouds for weeks at a time,while temperatures vary not only seasonally but from day to night.

  在歐洲，在機(jī)械表被引入以前，人們利用太陽(比如棍子的影子和日晷)和水鐘來確定時間。當(dāng)然，太陽鐘只能用于晴天使用，而水鐘表在水溫下降到冰點時會出錯，長期漂浮的東西因為下沉或堵塞而無法工作。這兩種儀器在晴天都運(yùn)行的很好，但北歐，太陽可能會藏在云后長達(dá)一周，同時，溫度不僅會隨季節(jié)中變化，也因晝夜而不同。

  Medieval Europe gave new importance to reliable time. The Catholic Church had its sevendaily prayers, one of which was at night, requiring an alarm arrangement to waken monksbefore dawn. And then the new cities and towns, squeezed by their walls, had to know andorder time in order to organize collective activity and ration space. They set a time to go tosleep. All this was compatible with older devices so long as there was only one authoritativetimekeeper; but with urban growth and the multiplication of time signals, discrepancy broughtdiscord and strife. Society needed a more dependable instrument of time measurementand found it in the mechanical clock.

  中世紀(jì)歐洲使得可靠的時間變得更重要。天主教堂每天有七次的禱告，有一個是在晚上，它要求設(shè)定鬧鐘以便在破曉前叫醒布道師。另外新的城市和小鎮(zhèn)，由于其空間的限制，他們必須要知道并且安排時間去組織集體活動和分配空間。他們設(shè)定時間睡覺。所有這些用老的儀器都是可以一致的，只要只有一個權(quán)威的時間記錄者。但是隨著城市的發(fā)展和報時信號的倍增，時間錯亂導(dǎo)致了不和與爭吵。社會需要一個更加可靠的工具去衡量時間，這個儀器就是機(jī)械鐘表。

  We do not know who invented this machine, or where. It seems to have appeared in Italyand England (perhaps simultaneous invention) between 1275 and 1300. Once known, itspread rapidly, driving out water clocks but not solar dials, which were needed to check thenew machines against the timekeeper of last resort. These early versions were rudimentary,inaccurate, and prone to breakdown.

  我們并不知道是誰發(fā)明了這個機(jī)器，或者在哪。它好像是出現(xiàn)在意大利或是英國(也許是同時發(fā)明的)在1275年到1300之間。一旦被人們所知，它就快速傳播并替代了水鐘表，但日晷依然存在，用來對照這個新儀器與原來的計時法。早期的版本很原始，不準(zhǔn)確且易壞。

  Ironically, the new machine tended to undermine Catholic Church authority. Althoughchurch ritual had sustained an interest in timekeeping throughout the centuries of urbancollapse that followed the fall of Rome, church time was nature’s time. Day and night weredivided into the same number of parts, so that except at the equinoxes, days and night hourswere unequal; and then of course the length of these hours varied with the seasons. But themechanical clock kept equal hours, and this implied a new time reckoning. The CatholicChurch resisted, not coming over to the new hours for about a century. From the start,however, the towns and cities took equal hours as their standard, and the public clocks installedin town halls and market squares became the very symbol of a new, secular municipalauthority. Every town wanted one; conquerors seized them as especially precious spoils ofwar; tourists came to see and hear these machines the way they made pilgrimages to sacredrelics.

  諷刺的是，新儀器有破壞天主教堂權(quán)威性的傾向。雖然幾世紀(jì)以來，盡管城市瓦解，羅馬沒落，但教堂儀式一直保持著對時間記錄的興趣，教堂時間是自然的時間。白天和黑夜被分為均等的部分，所以除去晝夜平分點，白天和黑夜時間是不均等的;當(dāng)然因此，這些時間的長度也隨著季節(jié)變化。但是，機(jī)械時鐘時間間隔相等，這意味著新的時間計算法。天主教會進(jìn)行反抗，將近一個世紀(jì)都不肯轉(zhuǎn)化到新的時間。但一開始，城鎮(zhèn)都接受了均等時間作為他們的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)，并且安裝公共的時鐘在城鎮(zhèn)大樓和市場變成了新的世俗市政權(quán)威的標(biāo)志。每個城鎮(zhèn)都想要一個;勝利者視它們?yōu)檎滟F的戰(zhàn)利品，在游人去神圣古跡朝圣的路上，他們專程去看并聽這些鐘表。

  The clock was the greatest achievement of medieval mechanical ingenuity. Its generalaccuracy could be checked against easily observed phenomena, like the rising and setting ofthe sun. The result was relentless pressure to improve technique and design. At every stage,clockmakers led the way to accuracy and precision; they became masters of miniaturization,detectors and correctors of error, searchers for new and better. They were thus the pioneers ofmechanical engineering and served as examples and teachers to other branches ofengineering.

  鐘表是中世紀(jì)機(jī)械精巧裝置的最大成就。它的正確性的可以通過簡單地可觀察日出日落等常見現(xiàn)象來證明。這樣的結(jié)果是對技術(shù)和設(shè)計進(jìn)步的殘酷的壓力。在每個階段，制表人引領(lǐng)者準(zhǔn)確與精度，他們成為了微型化的大師，錯誤的探測器和校正者，更新更好的搜尋者。因此他們是機(jī)械工程的先驅(qū)，是工程學(xué)其它分支的典范和老師。

  The clock brought order and control, both collective and personal. Its public display andprivate possession laid the basis for temporal autonomy: people could now coordinatecomings and goings without dictation from above. The clock provided the punctuation marksfor group activity, while enabling individuals to order their own work (and that of others) so asto enhance productivity. Indeed, the very notion of productivity is a by-product of the clock:once one can relate performance to uniform time units, work is never the same. One movesfrom the task-oriented time consciousness of the peasant (working on job after another, astime and light permit) and the time-filling busyness of the domestic servant (who always hadsomething to do) to an effort to maximize product per unit of time.

  鐘表帶來了秩序和控制，既有集體的也有個人的。它的公開展示和私人擁有鋪設(shè)了短期自治的基礎(chǔ)：人們現(xiàn)在可以不用根據(jù)上層的命令來調(diào)整去留。鐘表也為集體活動提供了時間提示，同時使個人能夠安排他們自己的工作，以加強(qiáng)生產(chǎn)力。事實上，生產(chǎn)力的準(zhǔn)確概念是時鐘的副產(chǎn)物，一旦一個人可以將其表現(xiàn)用統(tǒng)一的時間單位衡量，那么工作就永遠(yuǎn)都不會一樣了。人們從農(nóng)民以任務(wù)為導(dǎo)向的工作方式(在時間和光線條件允許的情況下，一件工作接著一件的干)和家奴以時間為導(dǎo)向的工作方式(總有事情做)中轉(zhuǎn)變到了將單位時間的生產(chǎn)量達(dá)到最大化的努力中。

  托福閱讀試題

  1.Why does the author provide the informationthat "in northern Europe the sun may be hiddenby clouds for weeks at a time, whiletemperatures vary not only seasonally but fromday to night"?

  A.To emphasize the variety of environments in which people used sun and water clocks to telltime.

  B.To illustrate the disadvantage of sun and water clocks.

  C.To provide an example of an area where water clocks have an advantage over sun clocks.

  D.To counter the claim that sun and water clocks were used all over Europe.

  1.從第一段的第二句開始，原文列舉了這兩種device各種的缺點，最后一句前半句說它們work，后面but表轉(zhuǎn)折，證明要說有些情況它們不能用。所以選擇B。A說人們在各種情況下都在使用這兩種方法，與原文表達(dá)的意思相反，C將兩種方法比較，原文沒有這層意思。D整個和劃線部分相反，原文說在northern Europe不能用。

  2.According to paragraph 2, all of the following are examples of the importance oftimekeeping to medieval European society EXCEPT

  A.the need of different towns to coordinate timekeeping with each other.

  B.the setting of specific times for the opening and closing of markets.

  C.the setting of specific time for the start and finish of the working day.

  D.the regulation of the performance of daily church rituals.

  2.雖然原文提到說城與城之間要保持一直，但其目的是organize collective activity，和ration space。 而collective activity對應(yīng)了選項B，C對應(yīng)set time to go to sleep,也就是結(jié)束工作的時間。D對應(yīng)開頭catholic church的prayers活動。

  3.According to paragraph 2, why did the medieval church need an alarmarrangement?

  A.The alarm warned the monks of discord or strife in the town.

  B.The church was responsible for regulating working hours and market hours.

  C.The alarm was needed in case fires were not put out each night.

  D.One of the church's daily rituals occurred during the night.

  3.對應(yīng)原文的第二句話，可根據(jù)alarm arrangement定位，前文說one of which was at night，后面說towaken monk before dawn，這兩個都可以算是原因，選項中符合的只有D。

  4.The word "authoritative" in the passage(paragraph 2)is closest in meaning to

  A.actual.

  B.important.

  C.official.

  D.effective.

  4.authoritative是權(quán)威的，A是真實的，B是重要的，C是官方的，D是有效的。因此C是正確的。文章中也說only one怎樣的time keeper，所以應(yīng)該是官方準(zhǔn)確時間。

  5.The author uses the phrase "the timekeeper of last resort" to refer to

  A.water clocks.

  B.the sun.

  C.mechanical clocks.

  D.the church.

  5.前文說需要它去check 這個machines，which前面說的是solar dials所以指的是the sun。

  6.The word "rudimentary" in the passage(paragraph 3)is closest in meaning to

  A.rare.

  B.small.

  C.impractical.

  D.basic.

  6.rudimentary是基礎(chǔ)的。 A是稀有的，B是小的，C是不切實際的，D是基本的。所以根據(jù)詞義D正確。這里我們可以看并列的詞都是負(fù)面的，這里的rudimentary也是在強(qiáng)調(diào)未發(fā)展，有落后的意味。如果按照負(fù)面詞來判斷，C可能成為迷惑選項，但其詞義不符。

  7.According to paragraph 4, how did the Catholic Church react to the introduction ofmechanical clocks?

  A.Its used mechanical clocks through the period of urban collapse.

  B.It used clocks to better understand natural phenomena, like equinoxes.

  C.It tried to preserve its own method of keeping time, which was different from mechanical-clock time.

  D.It used mechanical clocks to challenge secular, town authorities.

  7.可定位至相關(guān)段落，關(guān)鍵詞為resisted，not coming over，所以證明church在拒絕新的計時方法，也就是在試著保護(hù)自己的方法。

  8.The word "installed" in the passage(paragraph 4)is closest in meaning to

  A.required.

  B.expected by the majority of people.

  C.standardized.

  D.put in place.

  8.installed被安裝的，A是需要的，B是被大部分人們希望的，C是標(biāo)準(zhǔn)化的，D是放置于。D最符合，并且原文中原詞的后面也跟了地點，所以用D最合適。

  9.It can be inferred from paragraph 5 that medieval clockmakers

  A.were able to continually make improvements in the accuracy of mechanical clocks.

  B.were sometimes not well respected by other engineers.

  C.sometimes made claims about the accuracy of mechanical clocks that were not true.

  D.rarely shared their expertise with other engineers.

  9.根據(jù)clockmaker定位至倒數(shù)第二句，說制表人是正確和精密的領(lǐng)路人然后就對他們各種贊揚(yáng)。B，C，D選項都是在貶低制表人，所以很容易排除。B，D選項又和最后一句話明顯沖突。 A符合原文。

  10.Paragraph 5 answers which of the following questions about mechanical clocks.

  A.How did early mechanical clocks work?

  B.Why did the design of mechanical clocks affect engineering in general?

  C.How were mechanical clocks made?

  D.What influenced the design of the first mechanical clock?

  10.第五段主要說clockmaker引領(lǐng)了準(zhǔn)確，精準(zhǔn)工程的發(fā)展，他們是master，teacher等等，然后說他們是先鋒，但這些都是因為他們是制表人。所以這道題選B。 ACD原文都沒提到。

  11.The word "pioneers" in the passage isclosest in meaning to

  A.leaders.

  B.opponents.

  C.employers.

  D.guardians.

  11.pioneer是先驅(qū)，A是領(lǐng)導(dǎo)者，B是對手，C是雇主，D是監(jiān)護(hù)人。原文單詞所在句后半句也說道他們作teacher，所以很容易理解他們是領(lǐng)導(dǎo)者。

  12.According to paragraph 6, how did the mechanical clock affect labor?

  A.It encouraged workers to do more time-filling busywork.

  B.It enabled workers to be more task oriented.

  C.It pushed workers to work more hours every day.

  D.It led to a focus on productivity.

  12.定位到原文最后一句，說使人們從task-oriented和 time-filling busyness的模式變?yōu)閙aximizeproduct per unit of time，從而提高了productivity，所以選擇D。A，B原文都提到了，但是是轉(zhuǎn)化前的狀態(tài)，C沒提到。

  13. Look at the four squares[■] that indicate where the following sentence can beadded to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit? The division of time nolonger reflected the organization of religious ritual.

  Ironically, the new machine tended to undermine Catholic Church authority. Although churchritual had sustained an interest in timekeeping throughout the centuries of urban collapsethat followed the fall of Rome,church time was nature's time.■【A】Day and night were dividedinto the same number of parts, so that except at the equinoxes, days and night hours wereunequal;and then of course the length of these hours varied with the seasons.■【B】But themechanical clock kept equal hours, and this implied a new time reckoning.■【C】The CatholicChurch resisted, not coming over to the new hours for about acentury.■【D】From the start,however, the towns and cities took equal hours as their standard, and the public clocks installedin town halls and market squares became the very symbol of a new, secular municipalauthority. Every town wanted one; conquerors seized them as especially precious spoils ofwar;tourists came to see and hear these machines the way they made pilgrimages to sacredrelics.

  13.原句中no longer反應(yīng)宗教儀式了，那么此句前后應(yīng)該有對現(xiàn)在的計時制度的描寫，另外句末提到了religious ritual，所以附近也應(yīng)該有對宗教組織的態(tài)度描寫，滿足這兩個條件的位置是C。

  14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage isprovided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices thatexpress the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong inthe summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or areminor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.

  The introduction of the mechanical clock caused important changes to the society of medievalEurope.

  A.The increasing complexity of social and economic activity in medieval Europe led to theneed for a more dependable means of keeping time than sun and water clocks provided.

  B.Because they were unreliable even in sunny climates, sun clocks and water clocks were rarelyused in Europe, even before the invention of the mechanical clock.

  C.Before the mechanical clock, every city wanted a large number of timekeepers because moretimekeepers allowed for better organization of collective activities.

  D.Soon after the invention of mechanical clocks, sun and water clocks became obsoletebecause mechanical clocks were far more accurate.

  E.Predators help maintain biological diversity by limiting populations of a dominantcompetitor species, thereby preventing that species from excluding others.

  F.The removal of sea stars reduces the diversity of the community in which they arepredators, and is therefore a bad idea.

  14.A對應(yīng)第二段倒數(shù)第一句和倒數(shù)第二句后半句"with urban growth and the multiplication of timesignals, discrepancy brought discord and strife. Society needed a more dependableinstrument of time measurement and found it in the mechanical clock."正確。B與原文第一段矛盾。不選。C原文并沒有提到說有大量的timekeepers，而第三段還說只能有一個權(quán)威的timekeeper不選。D對應(yīng)原文第三段，說應(yīng)用mechanical clock之后water clock很快被棄用了，但sun clock依然留下用來對照mechanical clock的準(zhǔn)確性，錯，不選。

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